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leaden bullae。
The custom of dividing wax； ivory； wood and metal
MSS。 into pages and in this way into book form is said
by Suetonius to have been introduced by Julius Caesar；
whose letters to the Senate were so made up； and
after whose time the practice became usual for all
documents either addressed to； or issuing from that
body； or to or from the Emperors。 As that form subsequently
crept into general use； the books were known
as 〃codices；〃 and hence the ordinary term as applied
to manuscript volumes。
All classes of 〃books；〃 the reeds for writing in
them； the inkstands； and the 〃capsae〃 or 〃scrinia；〃
the boxes in which the 〃scapi〃 or rolls were kept；
are minutely portrayed in ancient wall…paintings and
ivory diptychs （double tablets）； and which may belong
to a period near the beginning of the Christian era。
Pliny and Dioscorides have given the formulas for
the writing inks used by the Greek and Roman scribes
immediately before and during their time。 Pliny declares
that the ink of the bookmakers was made of
soot； charcoal and gum； although he does not state
what fluid was employed to commingle them。 He does；
however； mention to an occasional use of some acid
（vinegar） to give the ink a binding property on the
papyrus。
Dioscorides； however； specifies the proportions of
this 〃soot〃 ink。 Another formula alluded to by the
same author calls for a half ounce each of copperas
（blue） and ox…glue； with half pound of smoke black
made from burned resin。 He adds； 〃is a good application
in cases of gangrene and is useful in scalds； if a
little thickened and employed as a salve。〃 De Vinne
speaks of this as a 〃crude〃 receipt which will enable
one to form a correct opinion of the quality of
scientific knowledge then applied to medicine and the
mechanical arts； also that these mixtures which are
more like shoe blacking than writing fluid were used
with immaterial modifications by the scribes of the
dark ages。
The old Greeks and Romans had no substitute for
the papyrus； which was so brittle that it could not be
folded or creased。 It could not be bound up in books；
nor could it be rolled up unsupported。 It was secure
only when it had been wound around a wooden or
metal roller。
After the wholesale destruction of the libraries of
ink…written MSS。； the black inks began to fall into disuse；
their value in respect to quality gradually deteriorated；
caused by the displacement of gummy
vehicles； and a consequent absence of any chance of
union between the parchment or papyrus and the dry
black particles； which could be 〃blown〃 or washed
off。 To employ any other kind of ink except one of
natural origin like the juice of berries which soon
disappeared； was forbidden by prevailing religious
customs。 Such conditions naturally merged into
others； in the shape of 〃ink〃 substitutes for writing；
the stylus； with its accompanying sheets or tablets
of ivory； wood； metal and wax came into popular
vogue and so continued for many centuries； even after
the employment of ink for writing purposes had been
resumed。
Ovid； in his story of Caunus and Byblis； illustrates
the use of the tables （tablets）； and he lived at the time
of the birth of Christ； thus translated：
〃Then fits her trembling hands to Write：
One holds the Wax； the Style the other guides；
Begins； doubts； writes； and at the Table chides；
Notes； razes； changes oft； dislikes； approves；
Throws all aside； resumes what she removes。
* * * * * * * *
〃The Wax thus filled with her successless wit；
She Verses in the utmost margin writ。〃
He also makes reference to inks； in the passage
taken from his first elegy； 〃Ad Librum：〃
〃Nec te purpureo velent vaccinia succo；
Non est conveniens luctibus ille color。
Nec titulus minio； nec cedro charta notetur。
Candida nec nigra cornua fronte geras。〃
which Davids translates as follows：
〃TO HIS BOOK。
〃Nor shall huckleberries stain （literally veil） thee with purple
juice：
That color is not becoming to lamentations。
Nor shall title （or head…letter） be marked with vermillion； or
paper with cedar；
Thou shalt carry neither white nor black horns on thy forehead
（or front； or frontispiece）。〃
The traditions handed down as of this era relating
to the efforts to find some substitute for 〃Indian〃
ink which would not only 〃bind〃 to parchment and
vellum but also would be satisfactory to the priests；
are more or less confirmed by the younger Pliny； and
makes it safe to assume that several were invented
and employed in writing； though possessing but little
lasting qualities。 Their use and natural disappearance
is perhaps the real cause of the fact that there are no
original MSS。 extant dating as of or belonging to the
time immediately preceding or following the birth of
Christ； or indeed until long after his death。
There is some authority though for the statement
that at this time two vitriolic substances were used in
the preparation of black ink；a slime or sediment
（Salsugo） and a yellow vitriolic earth （Misy）。 This
last…named mineral； is unquestionably the same natural
chemical mentioned by writers； which about the end
of the first century was designated 〃kalkanthum〃 or
〃chalkanthum〃 and possessed not only the appearance
of； but the virtues of what we know as blue
copperas or sulphate of copper。 It continued in use
as long as men were unacquainted with the art of
lixiviating salt； or； in other words； as long as they had
no vitriol manufactories。 Commingled with lampblack；
bitumen or like black substances in gummy
water； it was acceptable to the priests for ritualistic
writings and was in general vogue for several centuries
thereafter under the name of （blue） 〃vitriolic〃
ink； notwithstanding the fact that there could not be
any lasting chemical union between such materials。
It was the so…called 〃vitriolic〃 ink； which is said
to have 〃corroded the delicate leaves of the papyrus
and to have eaten through both parchment and
vellum。〃
These deductions； however； do not agree with some
of the historians and scholars like Noel Humphreys；
author of the 〃Origin and Progress of the Art of
Writing；〃 London； 1855； a recognized authority on the
subject of ancient MSS。； who but repeats in part the
text of earlier writers； when he says； p。 101：
〃Examples of early Greek MSS。 of the last century
previous to the Christian era are not confined
to Egyptian sources； the buried city of Herculaneum；
in Italy； partially destroyed about seventy…
nine years before the Christian era； and injured by
subsequeut eruptions； till totally destroyed by the
most violent eruption of Vesuvius on record； that
of the year 471 A。 D。 having yielded several
specimens。〃
The MSS。 examples mentioned in the citation； must
of necessity refer to specimens of writing made with
〃vitriolic〃 and even more ancient inks。 They are to
be considered in conjunction with the historical fact
that these cities were buried for more than sixteen
hundred years； counting from the first eruption； before
they were brought to light （Herculaneum was discovered
A。 D。 1713 and Pompeii； forty years later）；
also that they must have been subjected to intense
heat and a long period of decay which could only operate
to rob them of all traces of natural ink phenomena。
Furthermore； the information Mr。 Humphreys
seeks to convey； dates contemporaneously with the first
eruption of Vesuvius； which occurred seventy…nine
years AFTER the Christian era and not seventy…nine
years BEFORE it。
This stupendous blunder involves a period of one
hundred and fifty…eight years； if it is rectified； the
〃early Greek MSS。〃 are shown to emanate from the
second half of the first century following the birth of
Christ and confirming to some extent the deductions
hereinbefore made； although the probabilities are that
they belong to later periods； included in the third and
fourth centuries。
It is affirmed that the eruption of Mt。 Vesuvius
A。 D。 79； did not entirely destroy the cities of Herculaneum
and Pompeii； and that they emerged from their
ruins in the reign of the Emperor Titus。 They are
also mentioned as inhabited cities in the chart of
Peutinger； which is of the date of Constantine。
The next eruption； A。 D。 471； was probably the most
frightful on record if we exclude the volcanic eruption
of Mt。 Pelee； which occurred in Martinique； West
Indies； in 1902； destroying thirty thousand human
beings in fifteen minutes and devastating nearly the
entire island。 From Marcellinus we learn that the
ashes of the Vesuvius volcano were vomited over a
great portion of Europe； reaching to Constantinople；
where a festival was instituted in commemoration of
the strange phenomenon。 After this； we hear no
more of these cities； but the portion of th