a history of science-1-第11章

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o　the　voluminous　records　of　its　literature　were　entirely　shut　off　from　his　observation。　He　therefore　enlightens　us　but　little　regarding　the　science　of　the　Babylonians；　though　his　observations　on　their　practical　civilization　give　us　incidental　references　of　no　small　importance。　Somewhat　more　detailed　references　to　the　scientific　attainments　of　the　Babylonians　are　found　in　the　fragments　that　have　come　down　to　us　of　the　writings　of　the　great　Babylonian　historian；　Berosus；＇3＇　who　was　born　in　Babylon　about　330　B。C。；　and　who　was；　therefore；　a　contemporary　of　Alexander　the　Great。　But　the　writings　of　Berosus　also；　or　at　least　such　parts　of　them　as　have　come　down　to　us；　leave　very　much　to　be　desired　in　point　of　explicitness。　They　give　some　glimpses　of　Babylonian　history；　and　they　detail　at　some　length　the　strange　mythical　tales　of　creation　that　entered　into　the　Babylonian　conception　of　cosmogonydetails　which　find　their　counterpart　in　the　allied　recitals　of　the　Hebrews。　But　taken　all　in　all；　the　glimpses　of　the　actual　state　of　Chaldean＇4＇　learning；　as　it　was　commonly　called；　amounted　to　scarcely　more　than　vague　wonder…tales。　No　one　really　knew　just　what　interpretation　to　put　upon　these　tales　until　the　explorers　of　the　nineteenth　century　had　excavated　the　ruins　of　the　Babylonian　and　Assyrian　cities；　bringing　to　light　the　relics　of　their　wonderful　civilization。　But　these　relics　fortunately　included　vast　numbers　of　written　documents；　inscribed　on　tablets；　prisms；　and　cylinders　of　terra…cotta。　When　nineteenth…century　scholarship　had　penetrated　the　mysteries　of　the　strange　script；　and　ferreted　out　the　secrets　of　an　unknown　tongue；　the　world　at　last　was　in　possession　of　authentic　records　by　which　the　traditions　regarding　the　Babylonians　and　Assyrians　could　be　tested。　Thanks　to　these　materials；　a　new　science　commonly　spoken　of　as　Assyriology　came　into　being；　and　a　most　important　chapter　of　human　history　was　brought　to　light。　It　became　apparent　that　the　Greek　ideas　concerning　Mesopotamia；　though　vague　in　the　extreme；　were　founded　on　fact。　No　one　any　longer　questions　that　the　Mesopotamian　civilization　was　fully　on　a　par　with　that　of　Egypt；　indeed；　it　is　rather　held　that　superiority　lay　with　the　Asiatics。　Certainly；　in　point　of　purely　scientific　attainments；　the　Babylonians　passed　somewhat　beyond　their　Egyptian　competitors。　All　the　evidence　seems　to　suggest　also　that　the　Babylonian　civilization　was　even　more　ancient　than　that　of　Egypt。　The　precise　dates　are　here　in　dispute；　nor　for　our　present　purpose　need　they　greatly　concern　us。　But　the　Assyrio…Babylonian　records　have　much　greater　historical　accuracy　as　regards　matters　of　chronology　than　have　the　Egyptian；　and　it　is　believed　that　our　knowledge　of　the　early　Babylonian　history　is　carried　back；　with　some　certainty；　to　King　Sargon　of　Agade；＇5＇　for　whom　the　date　3800　B。C。　is　generally　accepted；　while　somewhat　vaguer　records　give　us　glimpses　of　periods　as　remote　as　the　sixth；　perhaps　even　the　seventh　or　eighth　millenniums　before　our　era。　At　a　very　early　period　Babylon　itself　was　not　a　capital　and　Nineveh　had　not　come　into　existence。　The　important　cities；　such　as　Nippur　and　Shirpurla；　were　situated　farther　to　the　south。　It　is　on　the　site　of　these　cities　that　the　recent　excavations　have　been　made；　such　as　those　of　the　University　of　Pennsylvania　expeditions　at　Nippur；＇6＇　which　are　giving　us　glimpses　into　remoter　recesses　of　the　historical　period。　Even　if　we　disregard　the　more　problematical　early　dates；　we　are　still　concerned　with　the　records　of　a　civilization　extending　unbroken　throughout　a　period　of　about　four　thousand　years；　the　actual　period　is　in　all　probability　twice　or　thrice　that。　Naturally　enough；　the　current　of　history　is　not　an　unbroken　stream　throughout　this　long　epoch。　It　appears　that　at　least　two　utterly　different　ethnic　elements　are　involved。　A　preponderance　of　evidence　seems　to　show　that　the　earliest　civilized　inhabitants　of　Mesopotamia　were　not　Semitic；　but　an　alien　race；　which　is　now　commonly　spoken　of　as　Sumerian。　This　people；　of　whom　we　catch　glimpses　chiefly　through　the　records　of　its　successors；　appears　to　have　been　subjugated　or　overthrown　by　Semitic　invaders；　who；　coming　perhaps　from　Arabia　（their　origin　is　in　dispute）；　took　possession　of　the　region　of　the　Tigris　and　Euphrates；　learned　from　the　Sumerians　many　of　the　useful　arts；　and；　partly　perhaps　because　of　their　mixed　lineage；　were　enabled　to　develop　the　most　wonderful　civilization　of　antiquity。　Could　we　analyze　the　details　of　this　civilization　from　its　earliest　to　its　latest　period　we　should　of　course　find　the　same　changes　which　always　attend　racial　progress　and　decay。　We　should　then　be　able；　no　doubt；　to　speak　of　certain　golden　epochs　and　their　periods　of　decline。　To　a　certain　meagre　extent　we　are　able　to　do　this　now。　We　know；　for　example；　that　King　Khammurabi；　who　lived　about　2200　B。C。；　was　a　great　law…giver；　the　ancient　prototype　of　Justinian；　and　the　epochs　of　such　Assyrian　kings　as　Sargon　II。；　Asshurnazirpal；　Sennacherib；　and　Asshurbanapal　stand　out　with　much　distinctness。　Yet；　as　a　whole；　the　record　does　not　enable　us　to　trace　with　clearness　the　progress　of　scientific　thought。　At　best　we　can　gain　fewer　glimpses　in　this　direction　than　in　almost　any　other；　for　it　is　the　record　of　war　and　conquest　rather　than　of　the　peaceful　arts　that　commanded　the　attention　of　the　ancient　scribe。　So　in　dealing　with　the　scientific　achievements　of　these　peoples；　we　shall　perforce　consider　their　varied　civilizations　as　a　unity；　and　attempt；　as　best　we　may；　to　summarize　their　achievements　as　a　whole。　For　the　most　part；　we　shall　not　attempt　to　discriminate　as　to　what　share　in　the　final　product　was　due　to　Sumerian；　what　to　Babylonian；　and　what　to　Assyrian。　We　shall　speak　of　Babylonian　science　as　including　all　these　elements；　and　drawing　our　information　chiefly　from　the　relatively　late　Assyrian　and　Babylonian　sources；　which；　therefore；　represent　the　culminating　achievements　of　all　these　ages　of　effort；　we　shall　attempt　to　discover　what　was　the　actual　status　of　Mesopotamian　science　at　its　climax。　In　so　far　as　we　succeed；　we　shall　be　able　to　judge　what　scientific　heritage　Europe　received　from　the　Orient；　for　in　the　records　of　Babylonian　science　we　have　to　do　with　the　Eastern　mind　at　its　best。　Let　us　turn　to　the　specific　inquiry　as　to　the　achievements　of　the　Chaldean　scientist　whose　fame　so　dazzled　the　eyes　of　his　contemporaries　of　the　classic　world。

BABYLONIAN　ASTRONOMY　Our　first　concern　naturally　is　astronomy；　this　being　here；　as　in　Egypt；　the　first…born　and　the　most　important　of　the　sciences。　The　fame　of　the　Chaldean　astronomer　was　indeed　what　chiefly　commanded　the　admiration　of　the　Greeks；　and　it　was　through　the　results　of　astronomical　observations　that　Babylonia　transmitted　her　most　important　influences　to　the　Western　world。　〃Our　division　of　time　is　of　Babylonian　origin；〃　says　Hornmel；＇7＇　〃to　Babylonia　we　owe　the　week　of　seven　days；　with　the　names　of　the　planets　for　the　days　of　the　week；　and　the　division　into　hours　and　months。〃　Hence　the　almost　personal　interest　which　we　of　to…day　must　needs　feel　in　the　efforts　of　the　Babylonian　star…gazer。　It　must　not　be　supposed；　however；　that　the　Chaldean　astronomer　had　made　any　very　extraordinary　advances　upon　the　knowledge　of　the　Egyptian　〃watchers　of　the　night。〃　After　all；　it　required　patient　observation　rather　than　any　peculiar　genius　in　the　observer　to　note　in　the　course　of　time　such　broad　astronomical　conditions　as　the　regularity　of　the　moon's　phases；　and　the　relation　of　the　lunar　periods　to　the　longer　periodical　oscillations　of　the　sun。　Nor　could　the　curious　wanderings　of　the　planets　escape　the　attention　of　even　a　moderately　keen　observer。　The　chief　distinction　between　the　Chaldean　and　Egyptian　astronomers　appears　to　have　consisted　in　the　relative　importance　they　attached　to　various　of　the　phenomena　which　they　both　observed。　The　Egyptian；　as　we　have　seen；　centred　his　attention　upon　the　sun。　That　luminary　was　the　abode　of　one　of　his　most　important　gods。　His　worship　was　essentially　solar。　The　Babylonian；　on　the　other　hand；　appears　to　have　been　peculiarly　impressed　with　the　importance　of　the　moon。　He　could　not；　of　course；　overlook　the　attention…compelling　fact　of　the　solar　year；　but　his　unit　of　time　was　the　lunar　period　of　thirty　days；　and　his　year　consisted　of　twelve　lunar　periods；　or　360　days。　He　was　perfectly　aware；　however；　that　this　period　did　not　coincide　with　the　actual　year；　but　the　relative　unimportance　which　he　ascribed　to　the　solar　year　is　evidenced　by　the　fact　that　he　interpolated　an　added　month　to　adjust　the　calendar　only　once　in　six　years。　Indeed；　it　would　appear　that　the　Babylonians　and　Assyrians　did　not　adopt　precisely　the　same　method　of　adjusting　the　calendar；　since　the　Babylonians　had　two　intercular　months　called　Elul　and　Adar；　whereas　the　Assyrians　had　only　a　single　such　month；　called　the　second　Adar。＇8＇　（The　Ve'Adar　of　the　Hebrews。）　This　diversity　further　emphasizes　the　fact　that　it　was　the　lunar　period　which　received　chief　attention；　the　adjustment　of　this　period　with　the　solar　seasons　being　a　necessary　expedient　of　secondary　importance。　It　is　held　that　these　lunar　periods　have　often　been　made　to　do　service　for　years　in　the　Babylonian　computations　and　in　the　allied　computations　of　the　early　H