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of his extreme changeableness； his failure in several occupations； his tendencies to swindling and his extreme lying。 As a young child his mother had to correct him much for prevarications。 Soon after he was 9； when both his parents were already dead； he forged a school certificate and was felt to be a bad influence in the home of his guardian。 About that time he also stole money from pockets on a number of occasions。 In school he was regarded as an undesirable pupil on account of his underhanded behavior； and one teacher who had observed him for long wrote that he showed marked inclination towards lying。 At the time he was 15； he was somewhat retarded in school life； but was told he had to decide upon an occupation。 After a stormy period he announced he would become a gardener。 After doing well for a month or so at his first place he began to tell compromising stories about the wife of his employer。 He gave himself out to be the son of a general who was going to inherit a large sum of money。 On the strength of this he managed to get hold of expensive articles he desired。 A short time afterward he wrote to his guardian he was fitted for higher pursuits than that of gardening。 Soon afterward he ran away to a large town。 He now wrote that the word freedom sounded like the sweetest music in his ears。 He acknowledged that he had started on a career of criminality； but decided to do better。 At this time he attempted to make his way by offering his compositions at a newspaper office where they were declined either because his productions were immature or his authorship was doubted。 One editor loaned him some money； but he got much more by representing himself to be a collaborator of this editor。 He soon failed to make his way and attempted other things； including entrance into the merchant marine。 He finally turned up again at his guardian's house； and when his box was opened it was found to contain a very curious lot of material such as money accounts； business cards； letter heads； catalogues。 It was at this time that he was placed for observation in an asylum and it was soon found that his alleged compositions were plagiarized。 He claimed to suffer from headaches。 Outside of that he was in fine physical condition。 He frequently wrote sketches in proof of his ability。 A general statement was finally made that he showed slight traces of hysteria； was a sufferer from headaches； and showed periodic tendencies to wandering and lying。 No special defect in the ethical discriminations was present。 He had good insight into his own tendencies。 He was finally released to his guardian； and Stemmermann offered the prognosis that Johann might well develop into a typical pathological swindler。 He came of a family of five brothers and sisters； one of whom was incarcerated for a year on account of stealing。 One sister was noted for her tendency to prevarication。 Several of them were remarkably unstable； at least early in life。 All of them are said to have learned very unwillingly in school。 One brother of the father was exceedingly nervous。
Jorger＇15＇ presents a case of a boy of poor parents who was from childhood possessed of the idea of becoming a teacher。 He was always a solitary child； endowed with great religious fervor。 In spite of poverty he obtained an education； studied the classics； and did excellent work。 He developed early religious eccentricities； became unsound on money matters； boasted of his father's millions； spent freely as a benefactor； bought expensive books。 Then developed an outspoken tendency to swindling。 Finally he was adjudged insane and committed to an asylum。 Commenting on this case； Jorger points out the marks of abnormality from childhood； such as solitariness and religious intensity。 He was above normal in intellectual ability； but lacking in moral development。 He did not love parents； brothers； sisters； or teachers； he was very egotistical。 Jorger defines this as a case of constitutional psychosis。 When older； pseudologia phantastica controlled him； it was like hypnotic influence； his dreams of wealth were like paranoia。 His hypnotic condition grew to such an extent that there was an interruption of consciousness with following amnesia。
＇15＇‘‘Beitrage zur Kenntnisse der Pseudologin phantastica。'' Viertel…jahrschrift fur gerichtliche Medicin und offentliches Sanitatswesen； 1904 Bd。 XXVII； pp。 189…242。
Henneberg＇16＇ cites another case of a highly educated young man who told wonderful stories in childhood and later obtained money under false pretenses with elaborate deception。 From an eccentric grandmother； and a mother who was very excitable and suffered from hysteria； he inherited a nervous system which was not calculated to bear the strain which his own overzealous efforts in pursuing his studies and his spiritual exaltation put upon it； hence the mental and moral breakdown。 This is a very interesting case because it does not fit into the usual group of pathological liars。
＇16＇ ‘‘Zur kasuistischen und klin。 Beurteilung der Pseudologia phantastica。'' Charite…Annalen； XXV； XXVI。
Wendt＇17＇ enlarges the field in which we may look for such cases。 He finds pseudologia phantastica a symptom； not only of hysteria； alcoholism； paranoia； but also of sex repression； and neurasthenia。 He takes a more philosophical view of the subject than previous authors。 He understands by pseudologia phantastica not merely the bare habit of telling fantastic lies； and what they bring forth； but rather the yielding up of consciousness of reality in the presence of the morbidly fantastic wish in its widest consequences。 Since the wish in order to exist is not permitted to lose entirely the conscious presentation of what it hopes for； so memory and recognition of reality emerge disconnected in consciousness； and a condition described as double consciousness arises。 In this state of mind two forms of life run side by side； the actual and the desired； finally the latter becomes preponderant and decisive。 Such a psychic make…up must lead unconditionally and necessarily to swindling and law breaking。 A degenerative alteration furnishes the basis from which a wish or wish…complex arises； increasing in force until it becomes autosuggestion； hence it is pathological。 Then follow the practical consequences； and we have developed； on the one side； pathological lying； and； on the other； swindling； i。e。； criminality。 Purely symptomatically pseudologia phantastica is characterized by the groundlessness of the fabrications； the heightened suggestibility of the patient； and in its wake arises double consciousness and inadequate powers of reproduction of reality。
＇17＇ ‘‘Ein Beitrag zur Kasuistik der Pseudologia phantastica。'' Allgemeine Zeitschrift fur Psychiatrie； LXVIII； Heft 4； pp。 482…500。
Wendt gives at length the history of a precocious boy； the son of an official of medical rank； who had lived always with older people。 He lied from early childhood。 He was a chronic sufferer from severe headaches。 Between the ages of 15 and 17 this boy showed evidences of literary talent； but was poor in mathematics。 From a tender age he had an overmastering desire to become great； he said he wished to become a jurist because only jurists get the high offices。 He entered a South German university； rented a fine apartment； stated he was accustomed to a Schloss； his father was a high state official。 He later called himself Graf Friedrich Gersdorf auf Blankenhain。 The young man's deceits grew rapidly； he obtained much money falsely； traveled first class with a body servant。 He passed to other universities； was always quiet and industrious。 After many adventures he fell into the hands of the law and was adjudged insane。 Most interesting was the fact that he discussed intelligently his career。 ‘‘My capacity for considering my thoughts as something really carried out in life is unfortunately too great to permit my having full conception of the boundary between appearance and reality。''
The family history of the above case included swindling； hysteria； and epilepsy。 His fabricating tendency first reached its height at 14 years； thus showing the influence of puberty。 Wendt regarded the etiological factors as family degeneracy； a wish…complex which in activity amounted to autosuggestion； double consciousness； and a periodical preponderance of the wished for personality。
Bresler＇18＇ in proposing two reforms in the German ‘‘Strafgesetzbuch'' undertook a discussion of pathological accusations； as material using cases reported by several authors。 He attempted a classification as follows： 1。 Deliberately false accusations based upon the pathological disposition or impulse to lie； the content of the accusation being fabricated。 2。 False accusation upon a basis of pathologically disturbed perceptions or reasoning。 Content of the accusation is here illusion； hallucination； or delusion。 3。 Accusations correct in content； but pathologically motivated。
＇18＇ ‘‘Die pathologische Anschuldigung。'' Juristisch…psychiatrische Grenzfragen； Band V； Heft 8； pp。 42。
The first group nearly always is the action of hystericals； and many are centered on sex affairs。 Bresler's cited cas