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From the fundamental belief transient accessory ideas may arise； but they always bear the impress of the belief from which they have sprung。 The Egyptian civilisation； the European civilisation of the Middle Ages； the Mussulman civilisation of the Arabs are all the outcome of a small number of religious beliefs which have left their mark on the least important elements of these civilisations and allow of their immediate recognition。
Thus it is that； thanks to general beliefs； the men of every age are enveloped in a network of traditions； opinions； and customs which render them all alike； and from whose yoke they cannot extricate themselves。 Men are guided in their conduct above all by their beliefs and by the customs that are the consequence of those beliefs。 These beliefs and customs regulate the smallest acts of our existence； and the most independent spirit cannot escape their influence。 The tyranny exercised unconsciously on men's minds is the only real tyranny； because it cannot be fought against。 Tiberius； Ghengis Khan； and Napoleon were assuredly redoubtable tyrants； but from the depth of their graves Moses； Buddha； Jesus； and Mahomet have exerted on the human soul a far profounder despotism。 A conspiracy may overthrow a tyrant； but what can it avail against a firmly established belief？ In its violent struggle with Roman Catholicism it is the French Revolution that has been vanquished； and this in spite of the fact that the sympathy of the crowd was apparently on its side； and in spite of recourse to destructive measures as pitiless as those of the Inquisition。 The only real tyrants that humanity has known have always been the memories of its dead or the illusions it has forged itself。
The philosophic absurdity that often marks general beliefs has never been an obstacle to their triumph。 Indeed the triumph of such beliefs would seem impossible unless on the condition that they offer some mysterious absurdity。 In consequence； the evident weakness of the socialist beliefs of to…day will not prevent them triumphing among the masses。 Their real inferiority to all religious beliefs is solely the result of this consideration； that the ideal of happiness offered by the latter being realisable only in a future life； it was beyond the power of anybody to contest it。 The socialist ideal of happiness being intended to be realised on earth； the vanity of its promises will at once appear as soon as the first efforts towards their realisation are made； and simultaneously the new belief will entirely lose its prestige。 Its strength； in consequence； will only increase until the day when； having triumphed； its practical realisation shall commence。 For this reason； while the new religion exerts to begin with； like all those that have preceded it； a destructive influence； it will be unable； in the future； to play a creative part。
2。 THE CHANGEABLE OPINIONS OF CROWDS
Above the substratum of fixed beliefs； whose power we have just demonstrated； is found an overlying growth of opinions； ideas； and thoughts which are incessantly springing up and dying out。 Some of them exist but for a day； and the more important scarcely outlive a generation。 We have already noted that the changes which supervene in opinions of this order are at times far more superficial than real； and that they are always affected by racial considerations。 When examining； for instance； the political institutions of France we showed that parties to all appearance utterly distinctroyalists； radicals； imperialists； socialists； &c。have an ideal absolutely identical； and that this ideal is solely dependent on the mental structure of the French race； since a quite contrary ideal is found under analogous names among other races。 Neither the name given to opinions nor deceptive adaptations alter the essence of things。 The men of the Great Revolution； saturated with Latin literature； who （their eyes fixed on the Roman Republic）； adopted its laws； its fasces； and its togas； did not become Romans because they were under the empire of a powerful historical suggestion。 The task of the philosopher is to investigate what it is which subsists of ancient beliefs beneath their apparent changes； and to identify amid the moving flux of opinions the part determined by general beliefs and the genius of the race。
In the absence of this philosophic test it might be supposed that crowds change their political or religious beliefs frequently and at will。 All history； whether political； religious； artistic； or literary； seems to prove that such is the case。
As an example； let us take a very short period of French history； merely that from 1790 to 1820； a period of thirty years' duration； that of a generation。 In the course of it we see the crowd at first monarchical become very revolutionary； then very imperialist； and again very monarchical。 In the matter of religion it gravitates in the same lapse of time from Catholicism to atheism； then towards deism； and then returns to the most pronounced forms of Catholicism。 These changes take place not only amongst the masses； but also amongst those who direct them。 We observe with astonishment the prominent men of the Convention； the sworn enemies of kings； men who would have neither gods nor masters； become the humble servants of Napoleon； and afterwards； under Louis XVIII。； piously carry candles in religious processions。
Numerous； too； are the changes in the opinions of the crowd in the course of the following seventy years。 The 〃Perfidious Albion〃 of the opening of the century is the ally of France under Napoleon's heir； Russia； twice invaded by France； which looked on with satisfaction at French reverses； becomes its friend。
In literature； art； and philosophy the successive evolutions of opinion are more rapid still。 Romanticism； naturalism； mysticism； &c。； spring up and die out in turn。 The artist and the writer applauded yesterday are treated on the morrow with profound contempt。
When； however； we analyse all these changes in appearance so far reaching； what do we find？ All those that are in opposition with the general beliefs and sentiments of the race are of transient duration； and the diverted stream soon resumes its course。 The opinions which are not linked to any general belief or sentiment of the race； and which in consequence cannot possess stability； are at the mercy of every chance； or； if the expression be preferred； of every change in the surrounding circumstances。 Formed by suggestion and contagion； they are always momentary； they crop up and disappear as rapidly on occasion as the sandhills formed by the wind on the sea…coast。
At the present day the changeable opinions of crowds are greater in number than they ever were； and for three different reasons。
The first is that as the old beliefs are losing their influence to a greater and greater extent； they are ceasing to shape the ephemeral opinions of the moment as they did in the past。 The weakening of general beliefs clears the ground for a crop of haphazard opinions without a past or a future。
The second reason is that the power of crowds being on the increase； and this power being less and less counterbalanced； the extreme mobility of ideas； which we have seen to be a peculiarity of crowds； can manifest itself without let or hindrance。
Finally； the third reason is the recent development of the newspaper press； by whose agency the most contrary opinions are being continually brought before the attention of crowds。 The suggestions that might result from each individual opinion are soon destroyed by suggestions of an opposite character。 The consequence is that no opinion succeeds in becoming widespread； and that the existence of all of them is ephemeral。 An opinion nowadays dies out before it has found a sufficiently wide acceptance to become general。
A phenomenon quite new in the world's history； and most characteristic of the present age； has resulted from these different causes； I allude to the powerlessness of governments to direct opinion。
In the past； and in no very distant past； the action of governments and the influence of a few writers and a very small number of newspapers constituted the real reflectors of public opinion。 To…day the writers have lost all influence； and the newspapers only reflect opinion。 As for statesmen； far from directing opinion； their only endeavour is to follow it。 They have a dread of opinion； which amounts at times to terror； and causes them to adopt an utterly unstable line of conduct。
The opinion of crowds tends； then； more and more to become the supreme guiding principle in politics。 It goes so far to…day as to force on alliances； as has been seen recently in the case of the Franco…Russian alliance； which is solely the outcome of a popular movement。 A curious symptom of the present time is to observe popes； kings； and emperors consent to be interviewed as a means of submitting their views on a given subject to the judgment of crowds。 Formerly it might have been correct to say that politics were not a matter of sentiment。 Can the same be said to…day； when politics are more and more swayed by the impulse of changeable crowds； who are uninfluenced by reason and can only be gu