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Assembly； in the Assembly he had no popularity。
〃The splendour of genius makes itself less felt in political assemblies than anywhere else。 They only give heed to eloquence appropriate to the time and place and to party services； not to services rendered the country。 For homage to be rendered Lamartine in 1848 and Thiers in 1871； the stimulant was needed of urgent； inexorable interest。 As soon as the danger was passed the parliamentary world forgot in the same instant its gratitude and its fright。〃
I have quoted the preceding passage for the sake of the facts it contains； not of the explanations it offers； their psychology being somewhat poor。 A crowd would at once lose its character of a crowd were it to credit its leaders with their services； whether of a party nature or rendered their country。 The crowd that obeys a leader is under the influence of his prestige； and its submission is not dictated by any sentiment of interest or gratitude。
In consequence the leader endowed with sufficient prestige wields almost absolute power。 The immense influence exerted during a long series of years； thanks to his prestige； by a celebrated Deputy；＇28＇ beaten at the last general election in consequence of certain financial events； is well known。 He had only to give the signal and Cabinets were overthrown。 A writer has clearly indicated the scope of his action in the following lines：
＇28＇ M。 Clemenceau。Note of the Translator。
〃It is due； in the main； to M。 X that we paid three times as dearly as we should have done for Tonkin； that we remained so long on a precarious footing in Madagascar； that we were defrauded of an empire in the region of the Lower Niger； and that we have lost the preponderating situation we used to occupy in Egypt。 The theories of M。 X have cost us more territories than the disasters of Napoleon I。〃
We must not harbour too bitter a grudge against the leader in question。 It is plain that he has cost us very dear； but a great part of his influence was due to the fact that he followed public opinion； which； in colonial matters； was far from being at the time what it has since become。 A leader is seldom in advance of public opinion； almost always all he does is to follow it and to espouse all its errors。
The means of persuasion of the leaders we are dealing with； apart from their prestige； consist in the factors we have already enumerated several times。 To make a skilful use of these resources a leader must have arrived at a comprehension； at least in an unconscious manner； of the psychology of crowds； and must know how to address them。 He should be aware； in particular； of the fascinating influence of words； phrases； and images。 He should possess a special description of eloquence； composed of energetic affirmationsunburdened with proofs and impressive images； accompanied by very summary arguments。 This is a kind of eloquence that is met with in all assemblies； the English Parliament included； the most serious though it is of all。
〃Debates in the House of Commons；〃 says the English philosopher Maine； 〃may be constantly read in which the entire discussion is confined to an exchange of rather weak generalities and rather violent personalities。 General formulas of this description exercise a prodigious influence on the imagination of a pure democracy。 It will always be easy to make a crowd accept general assertions； presented in striking terms； although they have never been verified； and are perhaps not susceptible of verification。〃
Too much importance cannot be attached to the 〃striking terms〃 alluded to in the above quotation。 We have already insisted； on several occasions； on the special power of words and formulas。 They must be chosen in such a way as to evoke very vivid images。 The following phrase； taken from a speech by one of the leaders of our assemblies； affords an excellent example：
〃When the same vessel shall bear away to the fever…haunted lands of our penitentiary settlements the politician of shady reputation and the anarchist guilty of murder； the pair will be able to converse together； and they will appear to each other as the two complementary aspects of one and the same state of society。〃
The image thus evoked is very vivid； and all the adversaries of the speaker felt themselves threatened by it。 They conjured up a double vision of the fever…haunted country and the vessel that may carry them away； for is it not possible that they are included in the somewhat ill…defined category of the politicians menaced？ They experienced the lurking fear that the men of the Convention must have felt whom the vague speeches of Robespierre threatened with the guillotine； and who； under the influence of this fear； invariably yielded to him。
It is all to the interest of the leaders to indulge in the most improbable exaggerations。 The speaker of whom I have just cited a sentence was able to affirm； without arousing violent protestations； that bankers and priests had subsidised the throwers of bombs； and that the directors of the great financial companies deserve the same punishment as anarchists。 Affirmations of this kind are always effective with crowds。 The affirmation is never too violent； the declamation never too threatening。 Nothing intimidates the audience more than this sort of eloquence。 Those present are afraid that if they protest they will be put down as traitors or accomplices。
As I have said； this peculiar style of eloquence has ever been of sovereign effect in all assemblies。 In times of crisis its power is still further accentuated。 The speeches of the great orators of the assemblies of the French Revolution are very interesting reading from this point of view。 At every instant they thought themselves obliged to pause in order to denounce crime and exalt virtue； after which they would burst forth into imprecations against tyrants； and swear to live free men or perish。 Those present rose to their feet； applauded furiously； and then； calmed； took their seats again。
On occasion； the leader may be intelligent and highly educated； but the possession of these qualities does him； as a rule； more harm than good。 By showing how complex things are； by allowing of explanation and promoting comprehension； intelligence always renders its owner indulgent； and blunts； in a large measure； that intensity and violence of conviction needful for apostles。 The great leaders of crowds of all ages； and those of the Revolution in particular； have been of lamentably narrow intellect； while it is precisely those whose intelligence has been the most restricted who have exercised the greatest influence。
The speeches of the most celebrated of them； of Robespierre； frequently astound one by their incoherence： by merely reading them no plausible explanation is to be found of the great part played by the powerful dictator：
〃The commonplaces and redundancies of pedagogic eloquence and Latin culture at the service of a mind childish rather than undistinguished； and limited in its notions of attack and defence to the defiant attitude of schoolboys。 Not an idea； not a happy turn of phrase； or a telling hit： a storm of declamation that leaves us bored。 After a dose of this unexhilarating reading one is attempted to exclaim ‘Oh！' with the amiable Camille Desmoulins。〃
It is terrible at times to think of the power that strong conviction combined with extreme narrowness of mind gives a man possessing prestige。 It is none the less necessary that these conditions should be satisfied for a man to ignore obstacles and display strength of will in a high measure。 Crowds instinctively recognise in men of energy and conviction the masters they are always in need of。
In a parliamentary assembly the success of a speech depends almost solely on the prestige possessed by the speaker； and not at all on the arguments he brings forward。 The best proof of this is that when for one cause or another a speaker loses his prestige； he loses simultaneously all his influence； that is； his power of influencing votes at will。
When an unknown speaker comes forward with a speech containing good arguments； but only arguments； the chances are that he will only obtain a hearing。 A Deputy who is a psychologist of insight； M。 Desaubes； has recently traced in the following lines the portrait of the Deputy who lacks prestige：
〃When he takes his place in the tribune he draws a document from his portfolio； spreads it out methodically before him； and makes a start with assurance。
〃He flatters himself that he will implant in the minds of his audience the conviction by which he is himself animated。 He has weighed and reweighed his arguments； he is well primed with figures and proofs； he is certain he will convince his hearers。 In the face of the evidence he is to adduce all resistance would be futile。 He begins； confident in the justice of his cause； and relying upon the attention of his colleagues； whose only anxiety； of course； is to subscribe to the truth。
〃He speaks； and is at once surprised at the restlessness of the House； and a little annoyed by the noise that is being made。
〃How is it silence is not kept？ Why this general inattention？ What are those Deputies thinki