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e the matter it would be necessary that they should be able to transform themselves into a crowd。＇6＇
＇6＇ It is understandable for this reason why it sometimes happens that pieces refused by all theatrical managers obtain a prodigious success when by a stroke of chance they are put on the stage。 The recent success of Francois Coppee's play 〃Pour la Couronne〃 is well known； and yet； in spite of the name of its author； it was refused during ten years by the managers of the principal Parisian theatres。
〃Charley's Aunt；〃 refused at every theatre； and finally staged at the expense of a stockbroker； has had two hundred representations in France； and more than a thousand in London。 Without the explanation given above of the impossibility for theatrical managers to mentally substitute themselves for a crowd； such mistakes in judgment on the part of competent individuals； who are most interested not to commit such grave blunders； would be inexplicable。 This is a subject that I cannot deal with here； but it might worthily tempt the pen of a writer acquainted with theatrical matters； and at the same time a subtle psychologistof such a writer； for instance； as M。 Francisque Sarcey。
Here； once more； were we able to embark on more extensive explanations； we should show the preponderating influence of racial considerations。 A play which provokes the enthusiasm of the crowd in one country has sometimes no success in another； or has only a partial and conventional success； because it does not put in operation influences capable of working on an altered public。
I need not add that the tendency to exaggeration in crowds is only present in the case of sentiments and not at all in the matter of intelligence。 I have already shown that； by the mere fact that an individual forms part of a crowd； his intellectual standard is immediately and considerably lowered。 A learned magistrate； M。 Tarde； has also verified this fact in his researches on the crimes of crowds。 It is only； then； with respect to sentiment that crowds can rise to a very high or； on the contrary； descend to a very low level。
4。 THE INTOLERANCE； DICTATORIALNESS AND CONSERVATISM OF CROWDS。
Crowds are only cognisant of simple and extreme sentiments； the opinions； ideas； and beliefs suggested to them are accepted or rejected as a whole； and considered as absolute truths or as not less absolute errors。 This is always the case with beliefs induced by a process of suggestion instead of engendered by reasoning。 Every one is aware of the intolerance that accompanies religious beliefs； and of the despotic empire they exercise on men's minds。
Being in doubt as to what constitutes truth or error； and having； on the other hand； a clear notion of its strength； a crowd is as disposed to give authoritative effect to its inspirations as it is intolerant。 An individual may accept contradiction and discussion； a crowd will never do so。 At public meetings the slightest contradiction on the part of an orator is immediately received with howls of fury and violent invective； soon followed by blows； and expulsion should the orator stick to his point。 Without the restraining presence of the representatives of authority the contradictor； indeed； would often be done to death。
Dictatorialness and intolerance are common to all categories of crowds； but they are met with in a varying degree of intensity。 Here； once more； reappears that fundamental notion of race which dominates all the feelings and all the thoughts of men。 It is more especially in Latin crowds that authoritativeness and intolerance are found developed in the highest measure。 In fact； their development is such in crowds of Latin origin that they have entirely destroyed that sentiment of the independence of the individual so powerful in the Anglo…Saxon。 Latin crowds are only concerned with the collective independence of the sect to which they belong； and the characteristic feature of their conception of independence is the need they experience of bringing those who are in disagreement with themselves into immediate and violent subjection to their beliefs。 Among the Latin races the Jacobins of every epoch； from those of the Inquisition downwards； have never been able to attain to a different conception of liberty。
Authoritativeness and intolerance are sentiments of which crowds have a very clear notion； which they easily conceive and which they entertain as readily as they put them in practice when once they are imposed upon them。 Crowds exhibit a docile respect for force； and are but slightly impressed by kindness； which for them is scarcely other than a form of weakness。 Their sympathies have never been bestowed on easy…going masters； but on tyrants who vigorously oppressed them。 It is to these latter that they always erect the loftiest statues。 It is true that they willingly trample on the despot whom they have stripped of his power； but it is because； having lost his strength； he has resumed his place among the feeble； who are to be despised because they are not to be feared。 The type of hero dear to crowds will always have the semblance of a Caesar。 His insignia attracts them； his authority overawes them； and his sword instils them with fear。
A crowd is always ready to revolt against a feeble； and to bow down servilely before a strong authority。 Should the strength of an authority be intermittent； the crowd； always obedient to its extreme sentiments； passes alternately from anarchy to servitude； and from servitude to anarchy。
However； to believe in the predominance among crowds of revolutionary instincts would be to entirely misconstrue their psychology。 It is merely their tendency to violence that deceives us on this point。 Their rebellious and destructive outbursts are always very transitory。 Crowds are too much governed by unconscious considerations； and too much subject in consequence to secular hereditary influences not to be extremely conservative。 Abandoned to themselves； they soon weary of disorder； and instinctively turn to servitude。 It was the proudest and most untractable of the Jacobins who acclaimed Bonaparte with greatest energy when he suppressed all liberty and made his hand of iron severely felt。
It is difficult to understand history； and popular revolutions in particular； if one does not take sufficiently into account the profoundly conservative instincts of crowds。 They may be desirous； it is true； of changing the names of their institutions； and to obtain these changes they accomplish at times even violent revolutions； but the essence of these institutions is too much the expression of the hereditary needs of the race for them not invariably to abide by it。 Their incessant mobility only exerts its influence on quite superficial matters。 In fact they possess conservative instincts as indestructible as those of all primitive beings。 Their fetish… like respect for all traditions is absolute； their unconscious horror of all novelty capable of changing the essential conditions of their existence is very deeply rooted。 Had democracies possessed the power they wield to…day at the time of the invention of mechanical looms or of the introduction of steam…power and of railways； the realisation of these inventions would have been impossible； or would have been achieved at the cost of revolutions and repeated massacres。 It is fortunate for the progress of civilisation that the power of crowds only began to exist when the great discoveries of science and industry had already been effected。
5。 THE MORALITY OF CROWDS。
Taking the word 〃morality〃 to mean constant respect for certain social conventions； and the permanent repression of selfish impulses； it is quite evident that crowds are too impulsive and too mobile to be moral。 If； however； we include in the term morality the transitory display of certain qualities such as abnegation； self…sacrifice； disinterestedness； devotion； and the need of equity； we may say； on the contrary； that crowds may exhibit at times a very lofty morality。
The few psychologists who have studied crowds have only considered them from the point of view of their criminal acts； and noticing how frequent these acts are； they have come to the conclusion that the moral standard of crowds is very low。
Doubtless this is often the case； but why？ Simply because our savage； destructive instincts are the inheritance left dormant in all of us from the primitive ages。 In the life of the isolated individual it would be dangerous for him to gratify these instincts； while his absorption in an irresponsible crowd； in which in consequence he is assured of impunity； gives him entire liberty to follow them。 Being unable； in the ordinary course of events； to exercise these destructive instincts on our fellow… men； we confine ourselves to exercising them on animals。 The passion； so widespread； for the chase and the acts of ferocity of crowds proceed from one and the same source。 A crowd which slowly slaughters a defenceless victim displays a very cowardly ferocity； but for the philosopher this ferocity is very closely related to that of the huntsmen who gather in dozens for the pleasure of taking part in the pursuit and killing of a luckless stag by t