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before the French Revolution。 To English society； past or present； I do
not refer。 For reasons which I have set forth at length in an introductory
discourse； there never was any Ancien Regime in England。
Therefore； when the Stuarts tried to establish in England a system
which might have led to a political condition like that of the Continent； all
classes combined and exterminated them； while the course of English
society went on as before。
On the contrary； England was the mother of every movement which
undermined； and at last destroyed； the Ancien Regime。
From England went forth those political theories which； transmitted
from America to France； became the principles of the French Revolution。
From England went forth the philosophy of Locke； with all its immense
results。 It is noteworthy； that when Voltaire tries to persuade people； in a
certain famous passage； that philosophers do not care to trouble the world…
…of the ten names to whom he does honour； seven names are English。 〃It
is；〃 he says； 〃neither Montaigne； nor Locke； nor Boyle； nor Spinoza； nor
Hobbes； nor Lord Shaftesbury； nor Mr。 Collins； nor Mr。 Toland； nor Fludd；
nor Baker； who have carried the torch of discord into their countries。〃 It
is worth notice； that not only are the majority of these names English； but
that they belong not to the latter but to the former half of the eighteenth
century； and indeed； to the latter half of the seventeenth。
So it was with that Inductive Physical Science； which helped more
than all to break up the superstitions of the Ancien Regime； and to set man
face to face with the facts of the universe。 From England； towards the
end of the seventeenth century； it was promulgated by such men as
Newton； Boyle； Sydenham； Ray； and the first founders of our Royal
Society。
In England； too； arose the great religious movements of the
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seventeenth and eighteenth centuriesand especially that of a body which
I can never mention without most deep respectthe Society of Friends。
At a time when the greater part of the Continent was sunk in spiritual sleep；
these men were reasserting doctrines concerning man； and his relation to
his Creator； which； whether or not all believe them （as I believe them） to
be founded on eternal fact； all must confess to have been of incalculable
benefit to the cause of humanity and civilisation。
From England； finally； about the middle of the eighteenth century；
went forthpromulgated by English noblementhat freemasonry which
seems to have been the true parent of all the secret societies of Europe。
Of this curious question； more hereafter。 But enough has been said to
show that England； instead of falling； at any period； into the stagnation of
the Ancien Regime； was； from the middle of the seventeenth century； in a
state of intellectual growth and ferment which communicated itself finally
to the continental nations。 This is the special honour of England；
universally confessed at the time。 It was to England that the slowly…
awakening nations looked； as the source of all which was noble； true； and
free； in the dawning future。
It will be seen； from what I have said； that I consider the Ancien
Regime to begin in the seventeenth century。 I should date its
commencementas far as that of anything so vague； unsystematic； indeed
anarchic； can be definedfrom the end of the Thirty Years' War； and the
peace of Westphalia in 1648。
For by that time the mighty spiritual struggles and fierce religious
animosities of the preceding century had worn themselves out。 And； as
always happens； to a period of earnest excitement had succeeded one of
weariness； disgust； half…unbelief in the many questions for which so much
blood had been shed。 No man had come out of the battle with altogether
clean hands； some not without changing sides more than once。 The war
had ended as one； not of nations； not even of zealots； but of mercenaries。
The body of Europe had been pulled in pieces between them all； and the
poor soul thereofas was to be expectedhad fled out through the gaping
wounds。 Life； mere existence； was the most pressing need。 If men
couldin the old prophet's wordsfind the life of their hand； they were
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content。 High and low only asked to be let live。 The poor asked it
slaughtered on a hundred battle…fields； burnt out of house and home： vast
tracts of the centre of Europe were lying desert； the population was
diminished for several generations。 The trading classes； ruined by the
long war； only asked to be let live； and make a little money。 The nobility；
too； only asked to be let live。 They had lost； in the long struggle； not
only often lands and power； but their ablest and bravest men； and a weaker
and meaner generation was left behind； to do the governing of the world。
Let them live； and keep what they had。 If signs of vigour still appeared
in France； in the wars of Louis XIV。 they were feverish； factitious；
temporary soon； as the event proved； to droop into the general
exhaustion。 If wars were still to be waged they were to be wars of
succession； wars of diplomacy； not wars of principle； waged for the
mightiest invisible interests of man。 The exhaustion was general； and to
it we must attribute alike the changes and the conservatism of the Ancien
Regime。 To it is owing that growth of a centralising despotism； and of
arbitrary regal power； which M。 de Tocqueville has set forth in a book
which I shall have occasion often to quote。 To it is owing； too； that
longing； which seems to us childish； after ancient forms； etiquettes；
dignities； court costumes； formalities diplomatic； legal； ecclesiastical。
Men clung to them as to keepsakes of the pastrevered relics of more
intelligible and better…ordered times。 If the spirit had been beaten out of
them in a century of battle； that was all the more reason for keeping up the
letter。 They had had a meaning once； a life once； perhaps there was a
little life left in them still； perhaps the dry bones would clothe themselves
with flesh once more； and stand upon their feet。 At least it was useful
that the common people should so believe。 There was good hope that the
simple masses； seeing the old dignities and formalities still parading the
streets； should suppose that they still contained men； and were not mere
wooden figures； dressed artistically in official costume。 And； on the
whole； that hope was not deceived。 More than a century of bitter
experience was needed ere the masses discovered that their ancient rulers
were like the suits of armour in the Tower of Londonempty iron astride
of wooden steeds； and armed with lances which every ploughboy could
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wrest out of their hands； and use in his own behalf。
The mistake of the masses was pardonable。 For those suits of armour
had once held living men； strong； brave； wise； men of an admirable temper；
doing their work according to their light； not altogether wellwhat man
does that on earth？but well enough to make themselves necessary to； and
loyally followed by； the masses whom they ruled。 No one can read fairly
the 〃Gesta Dei per Francos in Oriente；〃 or the deeds of the French Nobility
in their wars with England； or those taleshowever legendaryof the
mediaeval knights； which form so noble an element in German literature；
without seeing； that however