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determinations。 If we merely look at the name of Philosophy； all this matter will pertain to its
history。
I shall speak of this material from three points of view； for three related aspects are to be
eliminated and separated from Philosophy。 The first of these is that which is generally considered
to be the domain of science； and in which are sound the beginnings of understanding thought。 The
second region is that of mythology and religion； the relation of Philosophy to them seems often to
be inimical both in the time of the Greeks and of the Christians。 The third is that of philosophizing
and the metaphysics of the understanding。 While we distinguish what is related to Philosophy； we
must also take note of the elements in this related matter which belong to the Notion of
Philosophy； but which appear to us to be partially separated from it： and thus we may become
acquainted with the Notion of Philosophy。
a。 Relation of Philosophy to Scientific Knowledge。
Knowledge and thought certainly form the element of whatever has to do with particular sciences
as they form the element of Philosophy； but their subjects are mainly finite subjects and
appearance。 A collection of facts known about this content is by its nature excluded from
Philosophy： neither this content nor such a form has anything to do with it。 But even if the sciences
are systematic and contain universal principles and laws from which they proceed； they are still
related to a limited circle of objects。 The ultimate principles are assumed as are the objects
themselves； that is； the outward experience or the feelings of the heart； natural or educated sense
of right and duty； constitute the source from which they are created。 Logic and the determinations
and principles of thought in general are in their methods assumed。
The forms of thought or the points of view and principles which hold good in the sciences and
constitute the ultimate support of all their matter； are not peculiar to them； but are common to the
condition and culture of the time and of the people。 This culture consists mainly in the general ideas
and aims； in the whole extent of the particular intellectual powers dominating consciousness and
life。 Our consciousness has these ideas and allows them to be considered ultimate determinations；
it makes use of them as guiding and connecting links； but does not know them and does not even
make them the objects of its consideration。 To give an abstract example； each act of
consciousness has and requires the whole abstract thought…determination of Being。 〃The sun is in
the heavens； the bunch of grapes is ripe；〃 and so on into infinitude。 Again； in a higher culture； such
relations as those of cause and effect are involved； as also those of force and its manifestation。 All
its knowledge and ideas are permeated and governed by a metaphysic such as this； it is the net in
which all the concrete matter which occupies mankind in action and in impulses； is grasped。 But
this web and its knots in our ordinary consciousness are sunk into a manifold material； for it
contains the objects and interests which we know and which we have before us。 These common
threads are not drawn up and made explicitly the objects of our reflection。
We Germans seldom now count general scientific knowledge as Philosophy。 And yet traces of this
are found； as for instance； in the fact that the philosophic Faculty contains all the Sciences which
have not as their immediate aim the Church and State。 In connection with this； the significance of
the name of philosophy； which is even now an important matter of discussion in England； comes in
question。 Natural Sciences are in England called Philosophy。 A 〃Philosophic Journal〃 in England；
edited by Thompson； treats of Chemistry； Agriculture； Manuring； Husbandry； Technology； like
Hermbst？dt's Journal； and gives inventions connected therewith。 The English call physical
instruments； such as the barometer and thermometer； philosophical instruments。 Theories too； and
especially morality and the moral sciences； which are derived from the feelings of the human heart
or from experience； are called Philosophy； and finally this is also so with the theories and principles
of Political Economy。 And thus at least in England； is the name of Philosophy respected。 Some
time ago a banquet took place under the presidency of Lord Liverpool； at which the minister
Canning was also present。 The latter in returning thanks congratulated England in having
philosophic principles of government there brought into operation。 There； at least； Philosophy is no
by…word。
In the first beginnings of culture； however； we are more often met by this admixture of Philosophy
and general knowledge。 There comes a time to a nation when mind applies itself to universal
objects； when； for example； in seeking to bring natural things under general modes of
understanding； it tries to learn their causes。 Then it is said that a people begins to philosophize； for
this content has thought in common with Philosophy。 At such a time we find deliverances about all
the common events of Nature； as we also find intellectual maxims； moral sentences； general
principles respecting morality； the will； duty； and the like； and those who expressed them have
been called wise men or philosophers。 Thus in the beginnings of Greek Philosophy we find the
seven sages and the Ionic Philosophers。 From them a number of ideas and discoveries are
conveyed to us which seem like philosophic propositions。 Thus Thales； amongst others； has
explained that the eclipse of sun and moon is due to the intervention of the moon or earth。 This is
called a theorem。 Pythagoras found out the principle of the harmony of sounds。 Others have had
ideas about the stars： the heavens were supposed to be composed of perforated metal； by which
we see throughout the empyrean region； the eternal fire which surrounds the world。 Such
propositions as products of the understanding； do not belong to the history of Philosophy； although
they imply that the merely sensuous gaze has been left behind as also the representation of those
objects by the imagination only。 Earth and heaven thus become unpeopled with gods； because the
understanding distinguishes things in their outward and natural qualities from Mind。
In a later time the epoch of the revival in the sciences is as noteworthy in this respect。 General
principles regarding； the state； &c。； were given expression to； and in them a philosophic side
cannot be mistaken。 To this place the philosophic systems of Hobbes and Descartes belong： the
writings of the latter contain philosophic principles； but his Philosophy of Nature is quite empirical。
Huge Grotius composed an international law in which what was historically held by the people as
law； the consensus gentium； was a main element。 Though earlier； medicine was a collection of
isolated facts and a theosophic combination mixed up with astrology； &c。 （it is not so long ago
since cures were effected by sacred relics）； a mode of regarding nature came into vogue according
to which men went forth to discover the laws and forces of Nature。 The a priori reasoning
regarding natural things； according to the metaphysics of the Scholastic Philosophy or to Religion；
has now been given up。 The Philosophy of Newton contains nothing but Natural Science； that is；
the knowledge of the laws； forces； and general constitution of Nature； derived from observation
and from experience。 However much this may seem to be contrary to the principle of Philosophy；
it has in common with it the fact that the bases of both are universal； and still further that I have
made this experience； that it rests on my consciousness and obtains its significance through me。
This form is in its general aspect antagonistic to the positive； and has come forward as particularly
opposed to Religion and to that which is positive in it。 If； in the Middle Ages； the Church had its
dogmas as universal truths； man； on the contrary； has now obtained from the testimony of his 〃own
thought；〃 feeling and ideas； a mistrust of these。 It is merely to be remarked of this that 〃my own
thought〃 is in itself a pleonasm； because each individual must think for himself； and no one can do
so for another。 Similarly this principle has turned against the recognized constitutions and has
sought different principles instead； by them to correct the former。 Universal principles of the State
have now been laid down； while earlier； because religion was positive； the ground of obedience of
subjects to princes and of all authority were also so。 Kings； as the anointed of the Lord； in the
sense that Jewish kings were so； derived their power from God； and had to give account to Him
alone； because all authority is given by God。 So far theology and jurisprudence were on the whole
fixed and positive sciences； wherever this positive character might have been derived。 Against this
external authority reflection has been brought to bear； and thus； especially in England； the source
of public and civil law became no longer mere authority derived from God like the Mosaic Law。
For the authority of kings other justification was sought； such as the end implied in