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other that of things which relate to what is extended。” Thought； the Notion； the spiritual； the
self…conscious； is what is at home with itself； and its opposite is contained in what is extended；
spatial； separated； not at home with itself nor free。 This is the real distinction （distinctio realis） of
substances： “The one substance can be clearly and definitely comprehended without the other。 But
the corporeal and the thinking and creating substance can be comprehended under this common
notion； for the reason that they are things which require God’s support alone in order to exist。”
They are universal； other finite things require other things as conditions essential to their existence。
But extended substance； the kingdom of nature； and spiritual substance； do not require one
another。 They may be called substances； because each of them constitutes an entire range or
sphere； an independent totality。 But because； Spinoza concluded； each side； the kingdom of
thought as well as nature； is one complete system within itself； they are likewise in themselves； that
is absolutely； identical as God； the absolute substance； for thinking spirit this implicit is thus God；
or their differences are ideal。
Descartes proceeds from the Notion of God to what is created； to thought and extension； and
from this to the particular。 “Now substances have several attributes without which they cannot be
thought〃 — that signifies their determinateness — 〃but each has something peculiar to itself which
constitutes its nature and essence〃 — a simple universal determinateness — 〃and to which the
others all relate。 Thus thought； constitutes the absolute attribute of mind；” thought is its quality；
“extension is〃 the essential determination of corporeality； and this alone is “the true nature of
body。 What remains are merely secondary qualities； modes； like figure and movement in what is
extended； imagination； feeling and will in thinking； they may be taken away or thought away。 God
is the uncreated； thinking substance。” （30）
Descartes here passes to what is individual； and because he follows up extension he arrives at
matter； rest； movement。 One of Descartes’ main points is that matter； extension； corporeality； are
quite the same thing for thought； according to him the nature of body is fulfilled in its extension； and
this should be accepted as the only essential fact respecting the corporeal world。 We say that
body offers resistance； has smell； taste； colour； transparency； hardness； &c。； since without these
we can have no body。 All these further determinations respecting what is extended； such as size；
rest； movement； and inertia； are； however； merely sensuous； and this Descartes showed； as it had
long before this been shown by the Sceptics。 Undoubtedly that is the abstract Notion or pure
essence； but to body or to pure existence； there likewise of necessity pertains negativity or
diversity。 By means of the following illustration Descartes showed that with the exception of
extension； all corporeal determinations may be annihilated； and that none can be absolutely
predicated。 We draw conclusions respecting the solidity and hardness of matter from the
resistance which a body offers to our disturbance； and by means of which it seeks to hold its
place。 Now if we admit that matter as we touch it always gives way to as like space； we should
have no reason for ascribing to it solidity。 Smell； colour； taste； are in the same way sensuous
qualities merely； but what we clearly perceive is alone true。 If a body is ground into small parts； it
gives way； and yet it does not lose its nature； resistance is thus not essential。（31） This
not…being…for…itself is however a quantitatively slighter resistance only； the resistance always
remains。 But Descartes desires only to think； now he does not think resistance； colour； &c。； but
apprehends them by the senses only。 Hence he says that all this must be led back to extension as
being special modifications of the same。 It is undoubtedly to the credit of Descartes that he only
accepts as true what is thought； but the abrogation of these sensuous qualities simply represents
the negative movement of thought： the essence of body is conditioned through this thought； that is；
it is not true essence。
Descartes now makes his way from the Notion of extension to the laws of motion； as the universal
knowledge of the corporeal in its implicitude； he shows that there is no vacuum； for that would be
an extension without bodily substance； i。e。 a body without body； that there are no atoms （no
indivisible independent existence）； for the same reason； viz。； because the essence of body is
extension。 He further shows that a body is set in motion by something outside of it； but of itself it
continues in a condition of rest； and likewise it must； when in a condition of movement； be brought
to rest by another outside of it — this is the property of inertia。（32） These are unmeaning
propositions； for an abstraction is involved for instance in asserting simple rest and movement in
their opposition。
Extension and motion are the fundamental conceptions in mechanical physics； they represent the
truth of the corporeal world。 It is thus that ideality comes before the mind of Descartes； and he is
far elevated above the reality of the sensuous qualities； although he does not reach so far as to the
separation of this ideality。 He thus remains at the point of view of mechanism pure and simple。
Give me matter （extension） and motion and I will build worlds for you； is what Descartes virtually
says。（33） Space and time were hence to him the only determinations of the material universe。 In
this； then； lies the mechanical fashion of viewing nature； or the natural philosophy of Descartes is
seen to be purely mechanical。（34） Hence changes in matter are due merely to motion； so that
Descartes traces every relationship to the rest and movement of particles； and all material diversity
such as colour； and taste — in short； all bodily qualities and animal phenomena — to mechanism。 In
living beings processes such as that of digestion are mechanical effects which have as principles；
rest and movement。 We here see the ground and origin of the mechanical philosophy； but further
on we find that this is unsatisfactory； for matter and motion do not suffice to explain life。 Yet the
great matter in all this is that thought goes forward in its determinations； and that it constitutes from
these thought…determinations the truth of nature。
In his consideration of the system of the world and the movement of the heavenly bodies；
Descartes has worked out the mechanical view more fully。 He thus comes to speak of the earth；
the sun； &c。； and of his conception of the circling motion of the heavenly bodies in the form of
vortices： of metaphysical hypotheses as to how small particles pass into； out of； and through pores
and act on one another； and finally to saltpetre and gunpowder。（35）
Universal reflections should have the first claim on our attention； but on the other hand the
transition to the determinate is accomplished in a system of Physics which is the result of
observations and experiences； and this is done entirely by means of the understanding。 Descartes
thus mingles many observations with a metaphysic of this nature； and to us the result is hence
obscure。 In this philosophy the thinking treatment of empiricism is thus predominant； and a similar
method has been adopted by philosophers from this time on。 To Descartes and others； Philosophy
had still the more indefinite significance of arriving at knowledge through thought； reflection； and
reasoning。 Speculative cognition； the derivation from the Notion； the free independent
development of the matter itself； was first introduced by Fichte； and consequently what is now
called philosophic knowledge is not yet separated in Descartes from the rest of scientific
knowledge。 In those times all the knowledge of mankind was called philosophy； in Descartes’
metaphysics we thus saw quite empirical reflection and reasoning from particular grounds； from
experiences； facts； phenomena； being brought into play in the na？vest manner； and one has no
sense of speculation in the matter。 The strictly scientific element here really consisted mainly in the
method of proof as it has long been made use of in geometry； and in the ordinary method of the
formal logical syllogism。 Hence it likewise happens that Philosophy； which ought to form a totality
of the sciences； begins with logic and metaphysics； the second part is composed of ordinary
physics and mathematics； mingled no doubt with metaphysical speculations； and the third part；
ethics； deals with the nature of man； his duties； the state； the citizen。 And this is the case with
Descartes。 The first part of the Principia philosophi？ treats De principiis cognitionis human？；
the second De principiis rerum materialium。 This natural philosophy； as a philosophy of
extension； is； however； none other than what a quite ordinary physics or mechanics might at that
time be； and it is still quite hypothetical； we； on the other hand； accurately distinguish empirical
physics and natural philosophy； first likewise pertains