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experience； to the existence of certain impulses。 These are certainly determinations in ourselves；
but we have not known them in their necessity。 Such an impulse is besides taken as natural； and
thus it is here indeterminate in itself； it has its limitation only as a moment of the whole。 In regard to
knowledge； very abstract thoughts are to be found — though of a truth they are quite as good as
ours； and more ingenious — which according to their content ought to be concrete； and also were
so。 But so superficially were they comprehended that they soon showed themselves far from
sufficient for what had to be derived from them。 They said； for instance； that Nature is a whole；
that all is determined by laws； through a combination of different movements； through a chain of
causes and effects； and so on； the various properties； materials； connections of things bring
everything to pass。 Those are general phrases； with which one can fill whole books。
a。 SYSTèME DE LA NATURE。
To this philosophy belongs the Système de la Nature； the leading work on the subject； written in
Paris by a German； Baron von Hollbach； who was the central figure of all those philosophers。
Montesquieu； d'Alembert； Rousseau； were for a time in his circle； however much these men were
moved to indignation at the existing state of things； they were yet in other respects very different
from one another。 The Système de la Nature may very easily be found tiresome to read； because
it treats discursively of general conceptions； which are often repeated； it is not a French book； for
vivacity is lacking and the mode of presentation is dull。
The great Whole of Nature （le grand tout de la nature） is the ultimate： “The universe displays
nothing but an immense collection of matter and motion” （as with Descartes）； “an unbroken chain
of causes and effects； of which causes some directly affect our senses； while others are unknown
to us； because their effects； which we perceive； are too remote from their causes。 The different
qualities of these materials； their manifold connections； and the effects which result therefrom；
constitute essences for us。 From the diversity of these essences arise the different orders； species；
systems； under which things fall； and whose sum total； the great whole； is what we call Nature。”（2）
It is like what Aristotle （vide Vol。 I。 p。 241） says of Xenophanes； that he gazed into the blue； i。e。
into Being。 According to Hollbach all is movement； matter moves itself： beer ferments； the soul is
moved by its passions。（3） “The manifold variety of natural phenomena； and their incessant rise and
disappearance； have their sole ground in the variety of motions and of their material。” Through
different combinations and modifications； through a different arrangement； another thing is
originated。 “Material substances have either a tendency to combine with one another； or else they
are incapable of so combining。 Upon this are based by physical scientists the forces of attraction
and repulsion； sympathy and antipathy； affinity and relation； and the moralists base thereon hatred
and love； friendship and enmity。” Spirit； the incorporeal； contradicts or opposes itself to motion；
to a change of the relations of a body in space。（4）
b。 ROBINET。
Another work of importance is the still more “dangerous” treatise； De la Nature； by Robinet。 In
it there reigns quite a different and a deeper spirit； one is frequently struck by the depth of
earnestness which the writer displays。 He begins thus： “There is a God； i。e。； a cause of the
phenomena of that Whole which we call Nature。 Who is God？ We know not； and we are so
constituted that we can never know in what order of things we have been placed。 We cannot
know God perfectly； because the means of doing so will always be lacking to us。 We too might
write over the doors of our temples the words which were to be read upon the altar which the
Areopagite raised； 'To the unknown God。'” The very same thing is said nowadays： there can be
no transition from the finite to the infinite。 “The order which reigns in the universe is just as little the
visible type of His wisdom； as our weak mind is the image of His intelligence。” But this First
Cause； God； is according to Robinet a creative God； He has brought Nature into existence； so
that for him the only possible knowledge is that of Nature。 “There is only One Cause。 The eternal
Cause； who so to speak had sown （engrainé） events one in the other； in order that they might
without fail follow one upon another as He chose； in the beginning set in motion the endless chain
of things。 Through this permanent impression the Universe goes on living； moving and perpetuating
itself。 From the unity of cause there follows the unity of activity； for even it does not appear as
something to be more or less admitted。 By virtue of this single act all things come to pass。 Since
man has made Nature his study； he has found no isolated phenomenon； and no independent truth；
because there are not and cannot be such。 The whole sustains itself through the mutual
correspondence of its parts。”（5） The activity of Nature is one； as God is One。
This activity； more particularly regarded； signifies that germs unfold themselves in everything：
everywhere there are organic Beings which produce themselves； nothing is isolated； everything is
combined and connected and in harmony。 Robinet here goes through the plants； the animals； and
also the metals； the elements； air； fire； water； &c。； and seeks from them to demonstrate the
existence of the germ in whatever has life； and also how metals are organised in themselves。 “The
example of the polypus is convincing as to the animal nature （animalité） of the smallest portions of
organised matter； for the polypus is a group of associated polypi； each of which is as much a true
polypus as the first。 It stands proved that from the same point of view the living consists only of the
living； the animals of minute animals； every animal in particular of minute animals of the same kind；
a dog of dog…germs； man of human germs。” In proof of this Robinet states in a “Recapitulation”
that “animal sperm swarms with spermatic animalcules。” Since he then connects every
propagation properly so…called with the co…operation of both sexes； he alleges that every
individual is inwardly or also in the external organs a hermaphrodite。 Of the minerals he says： “Are
we not compelled to regard as organic bodies all those in which we meet with an inward structure
such as this？ It presupposes throughout a seed； seed…granules； germs； of which they are the
development。” In the same way the air must have its germ； which does not come to reality until it
is nourished by water； fire； &c。 “The air； as principle； is only the germ of the air； as it impregnates
or saturates itself in varying degrees with water and fire； it will gradually pass through different
stages of growth： it will become first embryo； then perfect air。”（6） Robinet gives the name of germ
to the simple form in itself； the substantial form； the Notion。 Although he seeks to prove this too
much from the sensuous side； he yet proceeds from principles in themselves concrete； from the
form in itself。
He speaks also of the evil and good in the world。 The result of his observation is that good and
evil balance each other； this equilibrium constitutes the beauty of the world。 In order to refute the
assertion that there is more good than evil in the world； he says that everything to which we reduce
the good consists only in an enjoyment； a pleasure； a satisfaction； but this must be preceded by a
want； a lack； a pain； the removal of which constitutes satisfaction。（7） This is not only a correct
thought empirically； but it also hints at the deeper idea that there is no activity except through
contradiction。
3。 IDEA OF A CONCRETE UNIVERSAL UNITY。
The result of the French philosophy is that it insisted on maintaining a general unity； not abstract；
but concrete。 Thus Robinet now propounded the theory of a universal organic life； and a uniform
mode of origination； this concrete system he called Nature； over which God was set； but as the
unknowable； all predicates which could be expressed of Him contained something inapplicable。
We must admit that grand conceptions of concrete unity are to be found here； as opposed to the
abstract metaphysical determinations of the understanding； e。g。； the fruitfulness of Nature。 But； on
the other hand； the point of most importance with these philosophers is that what is to be accepted
as valid must have presence； and that man in all knowledge must be himself the knower； for； as we
may see； those philosophers made war on all external authority of state and church； and in
particular on abstract thought which has no present meaning in us。 Two determinations found in all
philosophy are the concretion of the Idea and the presence of the spirit in the same； my content
must at the same time be something concrete； present。 This concrete was termed Reason； and for
it the more noble of those men contended with the greatest enthusiasm and warmth。 Thought was
raised like a standard among the nations； liberty of convict