a history of science-2-第22章

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here　was　still　room　for　mediaeval　superstition　and　for　the　pursuit　of　fallacious　ideals。　Two　forms　of　pseudo…science　were　peculiarly　prevalent　alchemy　and　astrology。　Neither　of　these　can　with　full　propriety　be　called　a　science；　yet　both　were　pursued　by　many　of　the　greatest　scientific　workers　of　the　period。　Moreover；　the　studies　of　the　alchemist　may　with　some　propriety　be　said　to　have　laid　the　foundation　for　the　latter…day　science　of　chemistry；　while　astrology　was　closely　allied　to　astronomy；　though　its　relations　to　that　science　are　not　as　intimate　as　has　sometimes　been　supposed。　Just　when　the　study　of　alchemy　began　is　undetermined。　It　was　certainly　of　very　ancient　origin；　perhaps　Egyptian；　but　its　most　flourishing　time　was　from　about　the　eighth　century　A。D。　to　the　eighteenth　century。　The　stories　of　the　Old　Testament　formed　a　basis　for　some　of　the　strange　beliefs　regarding　the　properties　of　the　magic　〃elixir；〃　or　〃philosopher's　stone。〃　Alchemists　believed　that　most　of　the　antediluvians；　perhaps　all　of　them；　possessed　a　knowledge　of　this　stone。　How；　otherwise；　could　they　have　prolonged　their　lives　to　nine　and　a　half　centuries？　And　Moses　was　surely　a　first…rate　alchemist；　as　is　proved　by　the　story　of　the　Golden　Calf。＇1＇　After　Aaron　had　made　the　calf　of　gold；　Moses　performed　the　much　more　difficult　task　of　grinding　it　to　powder　and　〃strewing　it　upon　the　waters；〃　thus　showing　that　he　had　transmuted　it　into　some　lighter　substance。　But　antediluvians　and　Biblical　characters　were　not　the　only　persons　who　were　thought　to　have　discovered　the　coveted。　〃elixir。〃　Hundreds　of　aged　mediaeval　chemists　were　credited　with　having　made　the　discovery；　and　were　thought　to　be　living　on　through　the　centuries　by　its　means。　Alaies　de　Lisle；　for　example；　who　died　in　1298；　at　the　age　of　110；　was　alleged　to　have　been　at　the　point　of　death　at　the　age　of　fifty；　but　just　at　this　time　he　made　the　fortunate　discovery　of　the　magic　stone；　and　so　continued　to　live　in　health　and　affluence　for　sixty　years　more。　And　De　Lisle　was　but　one　case　among　hundreds。　An　aged　and　wealthy　alchemist　could　claim　with　seeming　plausibility　that　he　was　prolonging　his　life　by　his　magic；　whereas　a　younger　man　might　assert　that；　knowing　the　great　secret；　he　was　keeping　himself　young　through　the　centuries。　In　either　case　such　a　statement；　or　rumor；　about　a　learned　and　wealthy　alchemist　was　likely　to　be　believed；　particularly　among　strangers；　and　as　such　a　man　would；　of　course；　be　the　object　of　much　attention；　the　claim　was　frequently　made　by　persons　seeking　notoriety。　One　of　the　most　celebrated　of　these　impostors　was　a　certain　Count　de　Saint…Germain；　who　was　connected　with　the　court　of　Louis　XV。　His　statements　carried　the　more　weight　because；　having　apparently　no　means　of　maintenance；　he　continued　to　live　in　affluence　year　after　yearfor　two　thousand　years；　as　he　himself　admittedby　means　of　the　magic　stone。　If　at　any　time　his　statements　were　doubted；　he　was　in　the　habit　of　referring　to　his　valet　for　confirmation；　this　valet　being　also　under　the　influence　of　the　elixir　of　life。　〃Upon　one　occasion　his　master　was　telling　a　party　of　ladies　and　gentlemen；　at　dinner；　some　conversation　he　had　had　in　Palestine；　with　King　Richard　I。；　of　England；　whom　he　described　as　a　very　particular　friend　of　his。　Signs　of　astonishment　and　incredulity　were　visible　on　the　faces　of　the　company；　upon　which　Saint…Germain　very　coolly　turned　to　his　servant；　who　stood　behind　his　chair；　and　asked　him　if　he　had　not　spoken　the　truth。　'I　really　cannot　say；'　replied　the　man；　without　moving　a　muscle；　'you　forget；　sir；　I　have　been　only　five　hundred　years　in　your　service。'　'Ah；　true；'　said　his　master；　'I　remember　now；　it　was　a　little　before　your　time！'　〃＇2＇　In　the　time　of　Saint…Germain；　only　a　little　over　a　century　ago；　belief　in　alchemy　had　almost　disappeared；　and　his　extraordinary　tales　were　probably　regarded　in　the　light　of　amusing　stories。　Still　there　was　undoubtedly　a　lingering　suspicion　in　the　minds　of　many　that　this　man　possessed　some　peculiar　secret。　A　few　centuries　earlier　his　tales　would　hardly　have　been　questioned；　for　at　that　time　the　belief　in　the　existence　of　this　magic　something　was　so　strong　that　the　search　for　it　became　almost　a　form　of　mania；　and　once　a　man　was　seized　with　it；　lie　gambled　away　health；　position；　and　life　itself　in　pursuing　the　coveted　stake。　An　example　of　this　is　seen　in　Albertus　Magnus；　one　of　the　most　learned　men　of　his　time；　who　it　is　said　resigned　his　position　as　bishop　of　Ratisbon　in　order　that　he　might　pursue　his　researches　in　alchemy。　If　self…sacrifice　was　not　sufficient　to　secure　the　prize；　crime　would　naturally　follow；　for　there　could　be　no　limit　to　the　price　of　the　stakes　in　this　game。　The　notorious　Marechal　de　Reys；　failing　to　find　the　coveted　stone　by　ordinary　methods　of　laboratory　research；　was　persuaded　by　an　impostor　that　if　he　would　propitiate　the　friendship　of　the　devil　the　secret　would　be　revealed。　To　this　end　De　Reys　began　secretly　capturing　young　children　as　they　passed　his　castle　and　murdering　them。　When　he　was　at　last　brought　to　justice　it　was　proved　that　he　had　murdered　something　like　a　hundred　children　within　a　period　of　three　years。　So；　at　least；　runs　one　version　of　the　story　of　this　perverted　being。　Naturally　monarchs；　constantly　in　need　of　funds；　were　interested　in　these　alchemists。　Even　sober　England　did　not　escape；　and　Raymond　Lully；　one　of　the　most　famous　of　the　thirteenth　and　fourteenth　century　alchemists；　is　said　to　have　been　secretly　invited　by　King　Edward　I。　（or　II。）　to　leave　Milan　and　settle　in　England。　According　to　some　accounts；　apartments　were　assigned　to　his　use　in　the　Tower　of　London；　where　he　is　alleged　to　have　made　some　six　million　pounds　sterling　for　the　monarch；　out　of　iron；　mercury；　lead；　and　pewter。　Pope　John　XXII。；　a　friend　and　pupil　of　the　alchemist　Arnold　de　Villeneuve；　is　reported　to　have　learned　the　secrets　of　alchemy　from　his　master。　Later　he　issued　two　bulls　against　〃pretenders〃　in　the　art；　which；　far　from　showing　his　disbelief；　were　cited　by　alchemists　as　proving　that　he　recognized　pretenders　as　distinct　from　true　masters　of　magic。　To　moderns　the　attitude　of　mind　of　the　alchemist　is　difficult　to　comprehend。　It　is；　perhaps；　possible　to　conceive　of　animals　or　plants　possessing　souls；　but　the　early　alchemist　attributed　the　same　thingor　something　kin　to　itto　metals　also。　Furthermore；　just　as　plants　germinated　from　seeds；　so　metals　were　supposed　to　germinate　also；　and　hence　a　constant　growth　of　metals　in　the　ground。　To　prove　this　the　alchemist　cited　cases　where　previously　exhausted　gold…mines　were　found；　after　a　lapse　of　time；　to　contain　fresh　quantities　of　gold。　The　〃seed〃　of　the　remaining　particles　of　gold　had　multiplied　and　increased。　But　this　germinating　process　could　only　take　place　under　favorable　conditions；　just　as　the　seed　of　a　plant　must　have　its　proper　surroundings　before　germinating；　and　it　was　believed　that　the　action　of　the　philosopher's　stone　was　to　hasten　this　process；　as　man　may　hasten　the　growth　of　plants　by　artificial　means。　Gold　was　looked　upon　as　the　most　perfect　metal；　and　all　other　metals　imperfect；　because　not　yet　〃purified。〃　By　some　alchemists　they　were　regarded　as　lepers；　who；　when　cured　of　their　leprosy；　would　become　gold。　And　since　nature　intended　that　all　things　should　be　perfect；　it　was　the　aim　of　the　alchemist　to　assist　her　in　this　purifying　process；　and　incidentally　to　gain　wealth　and　prolong　his　life。　By　other　alchemists　the　process　of　transition　from　baser　metals　into　gold　was　conceived　to　be　like　a　process　of　ripening　fruit。　The　ripened　product　was　gold；　while　the　green　fruit；　in　various　stages　of　maturity；　was　represented　by　the　base　metals。　Silver；　for　example；　was　more　nearly　ripe　than　lead；　but　the　difference　was　only　one　of　〃digestion；〃　and　it　was　thought　that　by　further　〃digestion〃　lead　might　first　become　silver　and　eventually　gold。　In　other　words；　Nature　had　not　completed　her　work；　and　was　wofully　slow　at　it　at　best；　but　man；　with　his　superior　faculties；　was　to　hasten　the　process　in　his　laboratoriesif　he　could　but　hit　upon　the　right　method　of　doing　so。　It　should　not　be　inferred　that　the　alchemist　set　about　his　task　of　assisting　nature　in　a　haphazard　way；　and　without　training　in　the　various　alchemic　laboratory　methods。　On　the　contrary；　he　usually　served　a　long　apprenticeship　in　the　rudiments　of　his　calling。　He　was　obliged　to　learn；　in　a　general　way；　many　of　the　same　things　that　must　be　understood　in　either　chemical　or　alchemical　laboratories。　The　general　knowledge　that　certain　liquids　vaporize　at　lower　temperatures　than　others；　and　that　the　melting…points　of　metals　differ　greatly；　for　example；　was　just　as　necessary　to　alchemy　as　to　chemistry。　The　knowledge　of　the　gross　structure；　or　nature；　of　materials　was　much　the　same　to　the　alchemist　as　to　the　chemist；　and；　for　that　matter；　many　of　the　experiments　in　calcining；　distilling；　etc。；　were　practically　identical。　To　the　alchemist　there　were　three　principlessalt；　sulphur；　and　mercuryand　the　sources　of　these　principles　were　the　four　elementsearth；　water；　fire；　and　air。　These　four　elements　were　accountable　for　every　substance　in　nature。　Some　of　the　experiments　to　prove　this　were　so　illusive；　and　yet　apparently　so　simple；　that　one　is　not　surprised　that　it　took　centuries　to　d