a history of science-2-第23章

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ere　so　illusive；　and　yet　apparently　so　simple；　that　one　is　not　surprised　that　it　took　centuries　to　disprove　them。　That　water　was　composed　of　earth　and　air　seemed　easily　proven　by　the　simple　process　of　boiling　it　in　a　tea…kettle；　for　the　residue　left　was　obviously　an　earthy　substance；　whereas　the　steam　driven　off　was　supposed　to　be　air。　The　fact　that　pure　water　leaves　no　residue　was　not　demonstrated　until　after　alchemy　had　practically　ceased　to　exist。　It　was　possible　also　to　demonstrate　that　water　could　be　turned　into　fire　by　thrusting　a　red…hot　poker　under　a　bellglass　containing　a　dish　of　water。　Not　only　did　the　quantity　of　water　diminish；　but；　if　a　lighted　candle　was　thrust　under　the　glass；　the　contents　ignited　and　burned；　proving；　apparently；　that　water　had　been　converted　into　fire。　These；　and　scores　of　other　similar　experiments；　seemed　so　easily　explained；　and　to　accord　so　well　with　the　〃four　elements〃　theory；　that　they　were　seldom　questioned　until　a　later　age　of　inductive　science。　But　there　was　one　experiment　to　which　the　alchemist　pinned　his　faith　in　showing　that　metals　could　be　〃killed〃　and　〃revived；〃　when　proper　means　were　employed。　It　had　been　known　for　many　centuries　that　if　any　metal；　other　than　gold　or　silver；　were　calcined　in　an　open　crucible；　it　turned；　after　a　time；　into　a　peculiar　kind　of　ash。　This　ash　was　thought　by　the　alchemist　to　represent　the　death　of　the　metal。　But　if　to　this　same　ash　a　few　grains　of　wheat　were　added　and　heat　again　applied　to　the　crucible；　the　metal　was　seen　to　〃rise　from　its　ashes〃　and　resume　its　original　forma　well…known　phenomenon　of　reducing　metals　from　oxides　by　the　use　of　carbon；　in　the　form　of　wheat；　or；　for　that　matter；　any　other　carbonaceous　substance。　Wheat　was；　therefore；　made　the　symbol　of　the　resurrection　of　the　life　eternal。　Oats；　corn；　or　a　piece　of　charcoal　would　have　〃revived〃　the　metals　from　the　ashes　equally　well；　but　the　mediaeval　alchemist　seems　not　to　have　known　this。　However；　in　this　experiment　the　metal　seemed　actually　to　be　destroyed　and　revivified；　and；　as　science　had　not　as　yet　explained　this　striking　phenomenon；　it　is　little　wonder　that　it　deceived　the　alchemist。　Since　the　alchemists　pursued　their　search　of　the　magic　stone　in　such　a　methodical　way；　it　would　seem　that　they　must　have　some　idea　of　the　appearance　of　the　substance　they　sought。　Probably　they　did；　each　according　to　his　own　mental　bias；　but；　if　so；　they　seldom　committed　themselves　to　writing；　confining　their　discourses　largely　to　speculations　as　to　the　properties　of　this　illusive　substance。　Furthermore；　the　desire　for　secrecy　would　prevent　them　from　expressing　so　important　a　piece　of　information。　But　on　the　subject　of　the　properties；　if　not　on　the　appearance　of　the　〃essence；〃　they　were　voluminous　writers。　It　was　supposed　to　be　the　only　perfect　substance　in　existence；　and　to　be　confined　in　various　substances；　in　quantities　proportionate　to　the　state　of　perfection　of　the　substance。　Thus；　gold　being　most　nearly　perfect　would　contain　more；　silver　less；　lead　still　less；　and　so　on。　The　〃essence〃　contained　in　the　more　nearly　perfect　metals　was　thought　to　be　more　potent；　a　very　small　quantity　of　it　being　capable　of　creating　large　quantities　of　gold　and　of　prolonging　life　indefinitely。　It　would　appear　from　many　of　the　writings　of　the　alchemists　that　their　conception　of　nature　and　the　supernatural　was　so　confused　and　entangled　in　an　inexplicable　philosophy　that　they　themselves　did　not　really　understand　the　meaning　of　what　they　were　attempting　to　convey。　But　it　should　not　be　forgotten　that　alchemy　was　kept　as　much　as　possible　from　the　ignorant　general　public；　and　the　alchemists　themselves　had　knowledge　of　secret　words　and　expressions　which　conveyed　a　definite　meaning　to　one　of　their　number；　but　which　would　appear　a　meaningless　jumble　to　an　outsider。　Some　of　these　writers　declared　openly　that　their　writings　were　intended　to　convey　an　entirely　erroneous　impression；　and　were　sent　out　only　for　that　purpose。　However；　while　it　may　have　been　true　that　the　vagaries　of　their　writings　were　made　purposely；　the　case　is　probably　more　correctly　explained　by　saying　that　the　very　nature　of　the　art　made　definite　statements　impossible。　They　were　dealing　with　something　that　did　not　existcould　not　exist。　Their　attempted　descriptions　became；　therefore；　the　language　of　romance　rather　than　the　language　of　science。　But　if　the　alchemists　themselves　were　usually　silent　as　to　the　appearance　of　the　actual　substance　of　the　philosopher's　stone；　there　were　numberless　other　writers　who　were　less　reticent。　By　some　it　was　supposed　to　be　a　stone；　by　others　a　liquid　or　elixir；　but　more　commonly　it　was　described　as　a　black　powder。　It　also　possessed　different　degrees　of　efficiency　according　to　its　degrees　of　purity；　certain　forms　only　possessing　the　power　of　turning　base　metals　into　gold；　while　others　gave　eternal　youth　and　life　or　different　degrees　of　health。　Thus　an　alchemist；　who　had　made　a　partial　discovery　of　this　substance；　could　prolong　life　a　certain　number　of　years　only；　or；　possessing　only　a　small　and　inadequate　amount　of　the　magic　powder；　he　was　obliged　to　give　up　the　ghost　when　the　effect　of　this　small　quantity　had　passed　away。　This　belief　in　the　supernatural　power　of　the　philosopher's　stone　to　prolong　life　and　heal　diseases　was　probably　a　later　phase　of　alchemy；　possibly　developed　by　attempts　to　connect　the　power　of　the　mysterious　essence　with　Biblical　teachings。　The　early　Roman　alchemists；　who　claimed　to　be　able　to　transmute　metals；　seem　not　to　have　made　other　claims　for　their　magic　stone。　By　the　fifteenth　century　the　belief　in　the　philosopher's　stone　had　become　so　fixed　that　governments　began　to　be　alarmed　lest　some　lucky　possessor　of　the　secret　should　flood　the　country　with　gold；　thus　rendering　the　existing　coin　of　little　value。　Some　little　consolation　was　found　in　the　thought　that　in　case　all　the　baser　metals　were　converted　into　gold　iron　would　then　become　the　〃precious　metal；〃　and　would　remain　so　until　some　new　philosopher's　stone　was　found　to　convert　gold　back　into　irona　much　more　difficult　feat；　it　was　thought。　However；　to　be　on　the　safe　side；　the　English　Parliament；　in　1404；　saw　fit　to　pass　an　act　declaring　the　making　of　gold　and　silver　to　be　a　felony。　Nevertheless；　in　1455；　King　Henry　VI。　granted　permission　to　several　〃knights；　citizens　of　London；　chemists；　and　monks〃　to　find　the　philosopher's　stone；　or　elixir；　that　the　crown　might　thus　be　enabled　to　pay　off　its　debts。　The　monks　and　ecclesiastics　were　supposed　to　be　most　likely　to　discover　the　secret　process；　since　〃they　were　such　good　artists　in　transubstantiating　bread　and　wine。〃　In　Germany　the　emperors　Maximilian　I。；　Rudolf　II。；　and　Frederick　II。　gave　considerable　attention　to　the　search；　and　the　example　they　set　was　followed　by　thousands　of　their　subjects。　It　is　said　that　some　noblemen　developed　the　unpleasant　custom　of　inviting　to　their　courts　men　who　were　reputed　to　have　found　the　stone；　and　then　imprisoning　the　poor　alchemists　until　they　had　made　a　certain　quantity　of　gold；　stimulating　their　activity　with　tortures　of　the　most　atrocious　kinds。　Thus　this　danger　of　being　imprisoned　and　held　for　ransom　until　some　fabulous　amount　of　gold　should　be　made　became　the　constant　menace　of　the　alchemist。　It　was　useless　for　an　alchemist　to　plead　poverty　once　it　was　noised　about　that　he　had　learned　the　secret。　For　how　could　such　a　man　be　poor　when；　with　a　piece　of　metal　and　a　few　grains　of　magic　powder；　he　was　able　to　provide　himself　with　gold？　It　was；　therefore；　a　reckless　alchemist　indeed　who　dared　boast　that　he　had　made　the　coveted　discovery。　The　fate　of　a　certain　indiscreet　alchemist；　supposed　by　many　to　have　been　Seton；　a　Scotchman；　was　not　an　uncommon　one。　Word　having　been　brought　to　the　elector　of　Saxony　that　this　alchemist　was　in　Dresden　and　boasting　of　his　powers；　the　elector　caused　him　to　be　arrested　and　imprisoned。　Forty　guards　were　stationed　to　see　that　he　did　not　escape　and　that　no　one　visited　him　save　the　elector　himself。　For　some　time　the　elector　tried　by　argument　and　persuasion　to　penetrate　his　secret　or　to　induce　him　to　make　a　certain　quantity　of　gold；　but　as　Seton　steadily　refused；　the　rack　was　tried；　and　for　several　months　he　suffered　torture；　until　finally；　reduced　to　a　mere　skeleton；　be　was　rescued　by　a　rival　candidate　of　the　elector；　a　Pole　named　Michael　Sendivogins；　who　drugged　the　guards。　However；　before　Seton　could　be　〃persuaded〃　by　his　new　captor；　he　died　of　his　injuries。　But　Sendivogins　was　also　ambitious　in　alchemy；　and；　since　Seton　was　beyond　his　reach；　he　took　the　next　best　step　and　married　his　widow。　From　her；　as　the　story　goes；　he　received　an　ounce　of　black　powderthe　veritable　philosopher's　stone。　With　this　he　manufactured　great　quantities　of　gold；　even　inviting　Emperor　Rudolf　II。　to　see　him　work　the　miracle。　That　monarch　was　so　impressed　that　he　caused　a　tablet　to　be　inserted　in　the　wall　of　the　room　in　which　he　had　seen　the　gold　made。　Sendivogins　had　learned　discretion　from　the　misfortune　of　Seton；　so　that　he　took　the　precaution　of　concealing　most　of　the　precious　powder　in　a　secret　chamber　of　his　carriage　when　he　travelled；　having　only　a　small　quantity　carried　by　his　steward　in　a　gold　box。　In　particularly　dangerous　places；　he　is　said　to　have　exchanged　clothes　with　hi