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undoubtedly implying the sense of self in the object and consciousness of unity with it； is
the least satisfying and the least complete of all the modes of self…consciousness。 It
points the way； therefore； to the fuller sense of self obtained when the self is aware of
itself in relation to another self。
（1） Consciousness In Itself
（2） Life
（3） The Ego and Desire
A。 Independence and Dependence of Self…Consciousness
Lordship and Bondage
Translator's comments： The selves conscious of self in another self are； of course； distinct
and separate from each other。 The difference is； in the first instance； a question of degree
of self …assertion and self…maintenance： one is stronger； higher； more independent than
another； and capable of asserting this at the expense of the other。 Still； even this
distinction of primary and secondary rests ultimately on their identity of constitution； and
the course of the analysis here gradually brings out this essential identity as the true fact。
The equality of the selves is the truth； or completer realization； of self in another self ； the
affinity is higher and more ultimate than the disparity。 Still； the struggle and conflict of
selves must be gone through in order to bring out this result。 Hence the present section。
The background of Hegel's thought is the remarkable human phenomenon of the
subordination of one self to another which we have in all forms of servitude — whether
slavery； serfdom； or voluntary service。 Servitude is not； only a phase of human history； it
is in principle a condition of the development and maintenance of the consciousness of
self as a fact of experience。
（1） Duplicated Self…Consciousness
（2） The Conflict of Self…Consciousness in Self…opposition
（3） Lord and Bondsman
B。 Freedom of Self…Consciousness： Stoicism； Skepticism； and the Unhappy
Consciousness
Translator's comments： The previous section has established the self as ultimately a free
self。 But even this is abstract at first； and hence the attempt to maintain it must pass
through different stages。 These attempts have taken historical expression in European
civilization； but these are merely instances of an experience that is strictly found in all
mankind。 Hegel； however； selects the forms assumed in European history； and has these
in mind throughout the succeeding analysis。 The terms Stoicism and Scepticism refer
primarily to the forms which these assumed in Greece and Rome。 The last stage of
independent and free self…hood he names faute de mieux； the 〃unhappy consciousness〃。
The background of historical material for this type of mind is found in the religious life of
the Middle Ages and the mental attitude assumed under the dominion of the Roman
Catholic Church and the Feudal Hierarchy。 The social and political dissolution of the Roman
Empire has its counterpart in the mental chaos and dissolution of Scepticism； the craving
of free mind for absolute stability and constancy amid change and uncertainty found
expression in an organized attempt on the part of the Church to establish permanent
connection between man's mental insecurity and an Immutable Reality。 The two poles of
the antithesis were far removed from each other； and the method or methods adopted to
bring about the union reflect the profound contrast of the opposing elements。 It is the
inner process of free mind in this realm of abstract subjective piety which Hegel analyses in
the part termed the 〃unhappy consciousness〃 — 〃unhappy〃 because craving complete
consciousness of self and never at this stage attaining it。
The end of this movement； and therefore the disappearance of all the onesidedness of
abstract individual freedom of self； is found when； through the above struggle； there
dawns on the self the consciousness of its complete and explicit unity with reality in every
shape and form。 This is the beginning of the absolute sovereignty of the Mind —
Consciousness of Reason as supreme。 The change to this new condition found historical
expression in the Reformation and the Renaissance。
Free Self…Consciousness
（1） Stoicism
（2） Scepticism
（3） The Unhappy Consciousness
C。 Free Concrete Mind
（AA）。 Reason
Translator's comments： Reason is the first stage in the analysis of concrete self…conscious of
itself in its object and conscious of the object as universal。 Reason is not a mere 〃function〃
of mind； but a stage of mind。 It therefore possesses its own peculiar content and operates
in a process peculiar to itself。 Its aim is to become completely conscious of its own nature；
and to acquire this it must develop itself through its various phases。 The process of
development is from immediate to mediate； from what it is implicitly to what it is explicitly。
The first step therefore is reason as immediate…where universal self is simply and directly
aware of itself in the universal object。 The operation of concrete mind at this stage is found
where reason 〃observes〃。 The analysis of observation as this operates in the various
domain covered by the empirical sciences is thus the subject…matter of the following
section。 The processes of these various sciences are assumed in Hegel's analysis。
Observation must change in character with the objects observed； hence the difference
between observation of inorganic and organic nature； observation of mind； and of the
relation of mind and nature。 The difficulties reason has to face in this operation； and the
contradictions into which it falls in seeking to find laws； etc。； to satisfy its aim； form the
substance of the following analysis。
The nature of reason as here conceived is the source and origin of philosophical Idealism；
whether the idealism be one…sided or absolute。 Idealism is in fact the philosophical
expression of the principle of reason； just as the various empirical sciences may be said to
be the development； in the several ways which experience dictates； of the operation of
rational observation。 Hence the introductory pages of the following analysis are devoted to
a statement of the character of true and false idealism。
The historical material behind the abstract argument elaborated here is provided by the
awakened scientific spirit that appeared after the Reformation； and the methods and
results of the empirical sciences at the time Hegel wrote。 In particular the physiological
conceptions of 〃irritability〃； 〃sensibility〃 and 〃reproduction〃； discussed on p。 302 ff。； were
first formulated by Haller； Elementa Physiologiae （1757…66）。 For a list of the chief scientific
works which appeared shortly before or about the time the following analysis was written；
and which doubtless provided art of the material for the analysis； see Merz； History of
European Thought； Vol。 1； pp。 82…83。
The polemical criticism which runs through this as through almost every section of the work
is directed against the one…sided idealism of Hegel's predecessors and the imperfect
conception of scientific method displayed by the current science of nature。
V。 Certainty and Truth of Reason
A。 Observation as a function of Reason
a。 （1） Observation of Nature
（2） Observation of Organic Nature
b。 Observation of self…consciousness as self…consciousness； and as
standing in relation to external reality。 Logical and Psychological laws
Translator's comments： Observation can be directed upon the self…conscious process of
mind in two ways： it may consider the mind's thinking relation to reality； and it may
consider the mind's active or biotic relation to reality。 The result of observation here； as in
the foregoing cases； finds expression in a number of laws； which it 〃frames〃。 The 〃laws〃 in
the first case are 〃laws of thought〃 or connected logical laws： in the latter case we have
laws of psychic events； 〃psychological〃 laws。
The analysis in this section shows the inadequacy of observation as such to deal with its
material in both cases。 It fails in the first case because （1） 〃laws of thought〃 have no
meaning apart from the reality with which thought is necessarily concerned； laws of