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regarded； and for certain purposes are in fact regarded； as merely distinct and detached
units living together。 Each functions as an individuality； endowed with certain powers and
capacities for self…expression； pursuing his ends for his own interest； spontaneously
putting forth his energies without being clearly aware of or concerned with any universal
result which his essentially universal nature must bring about。 In realizing his individuality
he goes out of himself in one sense； in another sense he does not。 By expressing himself
he carries out some 〃end〃 in which he has an 〃interest〃； he〃does〃something： he does a
deed or a 〃work〃； which qua mere action is nothing more than a mode of purposed
self…expression； and is not； as such； either good or bad （at this stage）。 What he does
appears as external to himself； but is his own all the while； something which he has
formed and in which he specifically is interested。 Such a result at once objective； framed by
himself and reflecting his interest； is 〃fact〃 as distinct from 〃thing〃 （which is an object of
perception at the level of consciousness； not of self…consciousness）。 But by the nature of
the case he can distinguish within this fact what is the real 〃intent〃 （die Sache Selbst） he
has in mind from the merely objective character of the fact （Sache）； he can； if we may put
it so； distinguish the 〃fact of the matter〃 from mere 〃matter of fact〃。 But other individuals
with whom he is associated and who are similarly constituted； carry on the same process of
separate self…expression。 Each is 〃honest〃 and 〃honourable〃 in so doing： each is
concerned with his own 〃real intent〃 and his own 〃fact〃。 By this association they necessarily
are interrelated and intercommunicate。 But communication on such a basis leads to
misconception； transference of intent； and 〃deception〃 of each other as well as of
themselves。 Work； deeds； facts have a universal character as well as a particular nature： in
the former aspect they cannot be one's own； in the latter aspect they cannot be another's：
yet both aspects are inseparable。 Intercommunication between these individuals thus
inevitably leads to contradiction。 It implies a common universal nature between the
individuals： but such universality at this stage is implicit not explicit。 The contradiction
inherent at this level between the elements in the situation created by individuals merely
coexisting together without a conscious common purpose controlling and guiding all； points
the way and compels an advance to another stage in the evolution of rational individuality。
When self…conscious individuals are regarded as merely 〃together〃； as coexisting without
consciously controlling common purposes； they resemble a community or herd of animals。
Hence the title of the Section。
It is not an accidental but an essential aspect of the life of society； it is indeed the
indispensable basis of community which is in one respect like a community of ants； the
system of activity of its component individuals； though each may and does fulfil his
purpose as his own private interest。
This aspect of social existence can be over…emphasized and may be regarded at times as
the sole nature of society。 The result can only lead to confusion。 Such a conception of
society may perhaps be said to be found where； as in certain economic conceptions of
society； society is viewed as a herd of self…interested units each pursuing his own individual
ends。 It is also seen in certain historical forms of national polity which recur from time to
time。
（1） The Notion of Individuality as Real
（2） Actual Fact and Individuality
（3） Mutual Deception and Spiritual Substance
b。 Reason as lawgiver
Translator's comments： The next step in the development of individuality is to bring out the
universal conditions of its co…existence with other individualities。 This it can do because it
is complete in itself； and is essentially self…conscious reason。 These conditions are many；
because of the diversity of its own content and of the relations in which it stands； and are
yet the conditions of individuality which is one and single。 Hence their plurality never
implies a separation； the conditions limit each other's operation and their precise
operation must be determined。
These； then； are the two stages in determining the general conditions or laws of
co…existence of individuality： （1） the enunciation of different laws by and for rational
individuality； （2） the relation of these laws inter se； and to the single principle from which
they all proceed。 Both stages owe their existence to the activity of reason。 Reason
promulgates laws； and criticizes； tests the validity of； the laws。
Hence the two following sections。
c。 Reason as test of laws
（BB）。 Spirit
VI。 Spirit
Translator's comments： In the preceding section there is analysed the attempt on the part
of individuality to operate as its own legislator and judge of laws holding for individuals。
Individuality may claim the privilege of enunciating laws universal in character but having
their source and inspiration solely in the single individual。 Such laws can at best only be
regulative and cannot be constitutive of the substance of individuality； for the substance of
individuality necessarily involves other individuals within it。 In short individuality is itself
only realized as a part of a concrete whole of individuals： its life is drawn from common life
in and with others。 To attempt to enunciate laws from itself as if it could create the
conditions of its own inherent universality can only issue in one result： laws are furnished
without the content which gives those laws any meaning； or else the laws and the content
remain from first to last external to one another。 But if laws are purely formal； they cease
to be i。e。 constitutive conditions of individuality。 Hence the attempt above described is
sure to break down by its own futility。 What is wanted to give the laws meaning is the
concrete substance of social life： and when this concrete substance is provided ipso facto
the attempt of individuality to create laws disappears； for these laws are already found in
operation in social life。 Only such laws have reality。 But this involves the further step that
individuality is only realized； only finds its true universal content； in and with the order of a
society。 Here alone is individuality what it is in truth； at once a particular focus of
self…consciousness； and a realization of universal mind。 This condition where individuality
is conscious of itself only in and with others； and conscious of the common life as its own；
is the stage of spiritual existence。 Spiritual existence and social life thus go together。 The
following section begins the analysis of this phase of experience； which extends from the
simplest form of sociality — the Family — up to the highest experience of universal mind —
Religion。
The immediately succeeding section may be taken as the keystone of the whole arch of
experience traversed in the Phenomenology。 Here it is pointed out that all the preceding
phases of experience have not merely been preparing the way f or what is to follow； but
that the various aspects； hitherto treated as separate moments of experience； are in
reality abstractions from the life of concrete spirit now to be discussed and analysed。
It is noteworthy that from this point onwards the argument is less negative in its result
either directly or indirectly； and is more systematic and constructive。 This is no doubt
largely because hitherto individual mind as such has been under review； and this is an
abstraction from social mind or spiritual existence。
A。 Objective Spirit： the ethical order
a。 The ethical world： law divine and human： man and woman
Translator's comments： The first step in the analysis of spirit is to take spirit as a realized
actual social order； immediately given as a historical fact； and present directly to the
mincls of the individuals composing it。 This is social life as an established routine of
human adjustments； where the natural characteristics and constitution of its moral
individuals are absorbed and built into the