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AN INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF THE WEALTH OF NATIONS
by Adam Smith
1776
BOOK FIVE
OF THE REVENUE OF THE SOVEREIGN OR COMMONWEALTH
CHAPTER I
Of the Expenses of the Sovereign or Commonwealth
PART 1
Of the Expense of Defence
THE first duty of the sovereign； that of protecting the
society from the violence and invasion of other independent
societies； can be performed only by means of a military force。
But the expense both of preparing this military force in time of
peace； and of employing it in time of war； is very different in
the different states of society； in the different periods of
improvement。
Among nations of hunters； the lowest and rudest state of
society； such as we find it among the native tribes of North
America； every man is a warrior as well as a hunter。 When he goes
to war； either to defend his society or to revenge the injuries
which have been done to it by other societies； he maintains
himself by his own labour in the same manner as when he lives at
home。 His society； for in this state of things there is properly
neither sovereign nor commonwealth； is at no sort of expense；
either to prepare him for the field； or to maintain him while he
is in it。
Among nations of shepherds； a more advanced state of
society； such as we find it among the Tartars and Arabs； every
man is； in the same manner； a warrior。 Such nations have commonly
no fixed habitation； but live either in tents or in a sort of
covered waggons which are easily transported from place to place。
The whole tribe or nation changes its situation according to the
different seasons of the year； as well as according to other
accidents。 When its herds and flocks have consumed the forage of
one part of the country； it removes to another； and from that to
a third。 In the dry season it comes down to the banks of the
rivers； in the wet season it retires to the upper country。 When
such a nation goes to war； the warriors will not trust their
herds and flocks to the feeble defence of their old men； their
women and children； and their old men； their women and children；
will not be left behind without defence and without subsistence。
The whole nation； besides； being accustomed to a wandering life；
even in time of peace； easily takes the field in time of war。
Whether it marches as an army； or moves about as a company of
herdsmen； the way of life is nearly the same； though the object
proposed by it be very different。 They all go to war together；
therefore； and every one does as well as he can。 Among the
Tartars； even the women have been frequently known to engage in
battle。 If they conquer； whatever belongs to the hostile tribe is
the recompense of the victory。 But if they are vanquished； all is
lost； and not only their herds and flocks； but their women and
children； become the booty of the conqueror。 Even the greater
part of those who survive the action are obliged to submit to him
for the sake of immediate subsistence。 The rest are commonly
dissipated and dispersed in the desert。
The ordinary life； the ordinary exercises of a Tartar or
Arab； prepare him sufficiently for war。 Running； wrestling；
cudgel…playing； throwing the javelin； drawing the bow； etc。； are
the common pastimes of those who live in the open air； and are
all of them the images of war。 When a Tartar or Arab actually
goes to war； he is maintained by his own herds and flocks which
he carries with him in the same manner as in peace。 His chief or
sovereign； for those nations have all chiefs or sovereigns； is at
no sort of expense in preparing him for the field； and when he is
in it the chance of plunder is the only pay which he either
expects or requires。
An army of hunters can seldom exceed two or three hundred
men。 The precarious subsistence which the chase affords could
seldom allow a greater number to keep together for any
considerable time。 An army of shepherds； on the contrary； may
sometimes amount to two or three hundred thousand。 As long as
nothing stops their progress； as long as they can go on from one
district； of which they have consumed the forage； to another
which is yet entire； there seems to be scarce any limit to the
number who can march on together。 A nation of hunters can never
be formidable to the civilised nations in their neighbourhood。 A
nation of shepherds may。 Nothing can be more contemptible than an
Indian war in North America。 Nothing； on the contrary； can be
more dreadful than Tartar invasion has frequently been in Asia。
The judgment of Thucydides； that both Europe and Asia could not
resist the Scythians united； has been verified by the experience
of all ages。 The inhabitants of the extensive but defenceless
plains of Scythia or Tartary have been frequently united under
the dominion of the chief of some conquering horde or clan； and
the havoc and devastation of Asia have always signalized their
union。 The inhabitants of the inhospitable deserts of Arabia； the
other great nation of shepherds； have never been united but once；
under Mahomet and his immediate successors。 Their union； which
was more the effect of religious enthusiasm than of conquest； was
signalized in the same manner。 If the hunting nations of America
should ever become shepherds； their neighbourhood would be much
more dangerous to the European colonies than it is at present。
In a yet more advanced state of society； among those nations
of husbandmen who have little foreign commerce； and no other
manufactures but those coarse and household ones which almost
every private family prepares for its own use； every man； in the
same manner； either is a warrior or easily becomes such。 They who
live by agriculture generally pass the whole day in the open air；
exposed to all the inclemencies of the seasons。 The hardiness of
their ordinary life prepares them for the fatigues of war； to
some of which their necessary occupations bear a great analogy。
The necessary occupation of a ditcher prepares him to work in the
trenches； and to fortify a camp as well as to enclose a field。
The ordinary pastimes of such husbandmen are the same as those of
shepherds； and are in the same manner the images of war。 But as
husbandmen have less leisure than shepherds； they are not so
frequently employed in those pastimes。 They are soldiers； but
soldiers not quite so much masters of their exercise。 Such as
they are； however； it seldom costs the sovereign or commonwealth
any expense to prepare them for the field。
Agriculture； even in its rudest and lowest state； supposes a
settlement： some sort of fixed habitation which cannot be
abandoned without great loss。 When a nation of mere husbandmen；
therefore； goes to war； the whole people cannot take the field
together。 The old men； the women and children； at least； must
remain at home to take care of the habitation。 All the men of the
military age； however； may take the field； and； in small nations
of this kind； have frequently done so。 In every nation the men of
the military age are supposed to amount to about a fourth or a
fifth part of the whole body of the people。 If the campaign；
should begin after seed…time； and end before harvest； both the
husbandman and his principal labourers can be spared from the
farm without much loss。 He trusts that the work which must be
done in the meantime can be well enough executed by the old men；
the women； and the children。 He is not unwilling； therefore； to
serve without pay during a short campaign； and it frequently
costs the sovereign or commonwealth as little to maintain him in
the field as to prepare him for it。 The citizens of all the
different states of ancient Greece seem to have served in this
manner till after the second Persian war； and the people of
Peloponnesus till after the Peloponnesian war。 The
Peloponnesians； Thucydides observes； generally left the field in
the summer； and returned home to reap the harvest。 The Roman
people under their kings； and during the first ages of the
republic； served in the same manner。 It was not till the siege of
Veii that they who stayed at home began to contribute something
towards maintaining those who went to war。 In the European
monarchies； which were founded upon the ruins of the Roman
empire； both before and for some time after the establishment of
what is properly called the feudal law； the great lords； with all
their immediate dependents； used to serve the crown at their own
expense。 In the field； in the same manner as at home； they
maintained themselves by their own revenue； and not by any
stipend or pay which they received from the king upon that
particular occasion。
In a more advanced state of society； two different causes
contribute to render it altogether impossible that t