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afterwards in several other cities。 The state； however； seems
never to have encouraged them further than by assigning some of
them a particular place to teach in； which was sometimes done；
too； by private donors。 The state seems to have assigned the
Academy to Plato； the Lyceum to Aristotle； and the Portico to
Zeno of Citta； the founder of the Stoics。 But Epicurus bequeathed
his gardens to his own school。 Till about the time of Marcus
Antonius； however； no teacher appears to have had any salary from
the public； or to have had any other emoluments but what arose
from the honoraries or fees of his scholars。 The bounty which
that philosophical emperor； as we learn from Lucian； bestowed
upon one of the teachers of philosophy； probably lasted no longer
than his own life。 There was nothing equivalent to the privileges
of graduation； and to have attended any of those schools was not
necessary； in order to be permitted to practise any particular
trade or profession。 If the opinion of their own utility could
not draw scholars to them； the law neither forced anybody to go
to them nor rewarded anybody for having gone to them。 The
teachers had no jurisdiction over their pupils； nor any other
authority besides that natural authority； which superior virtue
and abilities never fail to procure from young people towards
those who are entrusted with any part of their education。
At Rome； the study of the civil law made a part of the
education； not of the greater part of the citizens； but of some
particular families。 The young people； however； who wished to
acquire knowledge in the law； had no public school to go to； and
had no other method of studying it than by frequenting the
company of such of their relations and friends as were supposed
to understand it。 It is perhaps worth while to remark； that
though the Laws of the Twelve Tables were； many of them； copied
from those of some ancient Greek republics； yet law never seems
to have grown up to be a science in any republic of ancient
Greece。 In Rome it became a science very early； and gave a
considerable degree of illustration to those citizens who had the
reputation of understanding it。 In the republics of ancient
Greece； particularly in Athens； the ordinary courts of justice
consisted of numerous； and therefore disorderly； bodies of
people； who frequently decided almost at random； or as clamour；
faction； and party spirit happened to determine。 The ignominy of
an unjust decision； when it was to be divided among five hundred；
a thousand； or fifteen hundred people （for some of their courts
were so very numerous）； could not fall very heavy upon any
individual。 At Rome； on the contrary； the principal courts of
justice consisted either of a single judge or of a small number
of judges； whose characters； especially as they deliberated
always in public； could not fail to be very much affected by any
rash or unjust decision。 In doubtful cases such courts； from
their anxiety to avoid blame； would naturally endeavour to
shelter themselves under the example or precedent of the judges
who had sat before them； either in the same or in some other
court。 This attention to practice and precedent necessarily
formed the Roman law into that regular and orderly system in
which it has been delivered down to us； and the like attention
has had the like effects upon the laws of every other country
where such attention has taken place。 The superiority of
character in the Romans over that of the Greeks； so much remarked
by Polybius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus； was probably more
owing to the better constitution of their courts of justice than
to any of the circumstances to which those authors ascribe it。
The Romans are said to have been particularly distinguished for
their superior respect to an oath。 But the people who were
accustomed to make oath only before some diligent and
well…informed court of justice would naturally be much more
attentive to what they swore than they who were accustomed to do
the same thing before mobbish and disorderly assemblies。
The abilities； both civil and military； of the Greeks and
Romans will readily be allowed to have been at least equal to
those of any modern nation。 Our prejudice is perhaps rather to
overrate them。 But except in what related to military exercises；
the state seems to have been at no pains to form those great
abilities； for I cannot be induced to believe that the musical
education of the Greeks could be of much consequence in forming
them。 Masters； however； had been found； it seems； for instructing
the better sort of people among those nations in every art and
science in which the circumstances of their society rendered it
necessary or convenient for them to be instructed。 The demand for
such instruction produced what it always produces… the talent for
giving it； and the emulation which an unrestrained competition
never fails to excite； appears to have brought that talent to a
very high degree of perfection。 In the attention which the
ancient philosophers excited； in the empire which they acquired
over the opinions and principles of their auditors； in the
faculty which they possessed of giving a certain tone and
character to the conduct and conversation of those auditors； they
appear to have been much superior to any modern teachers。 In
modern times； the diligence of public teachers is more or less
corrupted by the circumstances which render them more or less
independent of their success and reputation in their particular
professions。 Their salaries； too； put the private teacher； who
would pretend to come into competition with them； in the same
state with a merchant who attempts to trade without a bounty in
competition with those who trade with a considerable one。 If he
sells his goods at nearly the same price； he cannot have the same
profit； and at least； if not bankruptcy and ruin； will infallibly
be his lot。 If he attempts to sell them much dearer； he is likely
to have so few customers that his circumstances will not be much
mended。 The privileges of graduation； besides； are in many
countries necessary； or at least extremely convenient； to most
men of learned professions； that is； to the far greater part of
those who have occasion for a learned education。 But those
privileges can be obtained only by attending the lectures of the
public teachers。 The most careful attendance upon the ablest
instructions of any private teacher cannot always give any title
to demand them。 It is from these different causes that the
private teacher of any of the sciences which are commonly taught
in universities is in modern times generally considered as in the
very lowest order of men of letters。 A man of real abilities can
scarce find out a more humiliating or a more unprofitable
employment to turn them to。 The endowment of schools and colleges
have； in this manner； not only corrupted the diligence of public
teachers； but have rendered it almost impossible to have any good
private ones。
Were there no public institutions for education； no system；
no science would be taught for which there was not some demand；
or which the circumstances of the times did not render it either
necessary； or convenient； or at least fashionable； to learn。 A
private teacher could never find his account in teaching either
an exploded and antiquated system of a science acknowledged to be
useful； or a science universally believed to be a mere useless
and pedantic heap of sophistry and nonsense。 Such systems； such
sciences； can subsist nowhere； but in those incorporated
societies for education whose prosperity and revenue are in a
great measure independent of their reputation and altogether
independent of their industry。 Were there no public institutions
for education； a gentleman； after going through with application
and abilities the most complete course of education which the
circumstances of the times were supposed to afford； could not
come into the world completely ignorant of everything which is
the common subject of conversation among gentlemen and men of the
world。
There are no public institutions for the education of women；
and there is accordingly nothing useless； absurd； or fantastical
in the common course of their education。 They are taught what
their parents or guardians judge it necessary or useful for them
to learn； and they are taught nothing else。 Every part of their
education tends evidently to some useful purpose； either to
improve the natural attractions of their person； or to form their
mind to reserve； to modesty； to chastity； and to economy； to
render them both likely to become the mistresses of a family； and
to behave properly when they have become such。 In every part of
her life a woman feels some conveniency or advantage from every
part of her education。 It seldom happens that a man； in any part
of his life； derives any conveniency or advantage from some of
t