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standing army。 When he was at peace； which he was very seldom；
and never for any long time together； he was careful not to
disband that army。 It vanquished and subdued； after a long and
violent struggle； indeed； the gallant and well exercised militias
of the principal republics of ancient Greece； and afterwards；
with very little struggle； the effeminate and ill…exercised
militia of the great Persian empire。 The fall of the Greek
republics and of the Persian empire was the effect of the
irresistible superiority which a standing army has over every
sort of militia。 It is the first great revolution in the affairs
of mankind of which history has preserved any distinct or
circumstantial account。
The fall of Carthage； and the consequent elevation of Rome；
is the second。 All the varieties in the fortune of those two
famous republics may very well be accounted for from the same
cause。
From the end of the first to the beginning of the second
Carthaginian war the armies of Carthage were continually in the
field； and employed under three great generals； who succeeded one
another in the command： Hamilcar； his son…in…law Hasdrubal； and
his son Hannibal； first in chastising their own rebellious
slaves； afterwards in subduing the revolted nations of Africa；
and； lastly； in conquering the great kingdom of Spain。 The army
which Hannibal led from Spain into Italy must necessarily； in
those different wars； have been gradually formed to the exact
discipline of a standing army。 The Romans； in the meantime；
though they had not been altogether at peace； yet they had not；
during this period； been engaged in any war of very great
consequence； and their military discipline； it is generally said；
was a good deal relaxed。 The Roman armies which Hannibal
encountered at Trebia； Thrasymenus； and Cannae were militia
opposed to a standing army。 This circumstance； it is probable；
contributed more than any other to determine the fate of those
battles。
The standing army which Hannibal left behind him in Spain
had the like superiority over the militia which the Romans sent
to oppose it； and in a few years； under the command of his
brother； the younger Hasdrubal； expelled them almost entirely
from that country。
Hannibal was ill supplied from home。 The Roman militia；
being continually in the field； became in the progress of the war
a well disciplined and well…exercised standing army； and the
superiority of Hannibal grew every day less and less。 Hasdrubal
judged it necessary to lead the whole； or almost the whole of the
standing army which he commanded in Spain； to the assistance of
his brother in Italy。 In this march he is said to have been
misled by his guides； and in a country which he did not know； was
surprised and attacked by another standing army； in every respect
equal or superior to his own； and was entirely defeated。
When Hasdrubal had left Spain； the great Scipio found
nothing to oppose him but a militia inferior to his own。 He
conquered and subdued that militia； and； in the course of the
war； his own militia necessarily became a well…disciplined and
well…exercised standing army。 That standing army was afterwards
carried to Africa； where it found nothing but a militia to oppose
it。 In order to defend Carthage it became necessary to recall the
standing army of Hannibal。 The disheartened and frequently
defeated African militia joined it； and； at the battle of Zama；
composed the greater part of the troops of Hannibal。 The event of
that day determined the fate of the two rival republics。
From the end of the second Carthaginian war till the fall of
the Roman republic； the armies of Rome were in every respect
standing armies。 The standing army of Macedon made some
resistance to their arms。 In the height of their grandeur it cost
them two great wars； and three great battles； to subdue that
little kingdom； of which the conquest would probably have been
still more difficult had it not been for the cowardice of its
last king。 The militias of all the civilised nations of the
ancient world； of Greece； of Syria； and of Egypt； made but a
feeble resistance to the standing armies of Rome。 The militias of
some barbarous nations defended themselves much better。 The
Scythian or Tartar militia； which Mithridates drew from the
countries north of the Euxine and Caspian seas； were the most
formidable enemies whom the Romans had to encounter after the
second Carthaginian war。 The Parthian and German militias； too；
were always respectable； and upon several occasions gained very
considerable advantages over the Roman armies。 In general；
however； and when the Roman armies were well commanded； they
appear to have been very much superior； and if the Romans did not
pursue the final conquest either of Parthia or Germany； it was
probably because they judged that it was not worth while to add
those two barbarous countries to an empire which was already too
large。 The ancient Parthians appear to have been a nation of
Scythian or Tartar extraction； and to have always retained a good
deal of the manners of their ancestors。 The ancient Germans were；
like the Scythians or Tartars； a nation of wandering shepherds；
who went to war under the same chiefs whom they were accustomed
to follow in peace。 Their militia was exactly of the same kind
with that of the Scythians or Tartars； from whom； too； they were
probably descended。
Many different causes contributed to relax the discipline of
the Roman armies。 Its extreme severity was； perhaps； one of those
causes。 In the days of their grandeur； when no enemy appeared
capable of opposing them； their heavy armour was laid aside as
unnecessarily burdensome； their labourious exercises were
neglected as unnecessarily toilsome。 Under the Roman emperors；
besides； the standing armies of Rome； those particularly which
guarded the German and Pannonian frontiers； became dangerous to
their masters； against whom they used frequently to set up their
own generals。 In order to render them less formidable； according
to some authors； Dioclesian； according to others； Constantine；
first withdrew them from the frontier； where they had always
before been encamped in great bodies； generally of two or three
legions each； and dispersed them in small bodies through the
different provincial towns； from whence they were scarce ever
removed but when it became necessary to repel an invasion。 Small
bodies of soldiers quartered； in trading and manufacturing towns；
and seldom removed from those quarters； became themselves
tradesmen； artificers； and manufacturers。 The civil came to
predominate over the military character； and the standing armies
of Rome gradually degenerated into a corrupt； neglected； and
undisciplined militia； incapable of resisting the attack of the
German and Scythian militias； which soon afterwards invaded the
western empire。 It was only by hiring the militia of some of
those nations to oppose to that of others that the emperors were
for some time able to defend themselves。 The fall of the western
empire is the third great revolution in the affairs of mankind of
which ancient history has preserved any distinct or
circumstantial account。 It was brought about by the irresistible
superiority which the militia of a barbarous has over that of a
civilised nation； which the militia of a nation of shepherds has
over that of a nation of husbandmen； artificers； and
manufacturers。 The victories which have been gained by militias
have generally been； not over standing armies； but over other
militias in exercise and discipline inferior to themselves。 Such
were the victories which the Greek militia gained over that of
the Persian empire； and such too were those which in later times
the Swiss militia gained over that of the Austrians and
Burgundians。
The military force of the German and Scythian nations who
established themselves upon the ruins of the western empire
continued for some time to be of the same kind in their new
settlements as it had been in their original country。 It was a
militia of shepherds and husbandmen； which； in time of war； took
the field under the command of the same chieftains whom it was
accustomed to obey in peace。 It was； therefore； tolerably well
exercised； and tolerably well disciplined。 As arts and industry
advanced； however； the authority of the chieftains gradually
decayed； and the great body of the people had less time to spare
for military exercises。 Both the discipline and the exercise of
the feudal militia； therefore； went gradually to ruin； and
standing armies were gradually introduced to supply the place of
it。 When the expedient of a standing army； besides； had once been
adopted by one civilised nation； it became necessary that all its
neighbours should follow their example。 They soon found that
their safety depended upon their doing so； and that their own
militia was altogether inca