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taxed） was very much below the real value of that stock or trade。
Whatever inequalities； therefore； there might be in the original
assessment gave little disturbance。 Every parish and district
still continues to be rated for its land； its houses； and its
stock； according to the original assessment； and the almost
universal prosperity of the country； which in most places has
raised very much the value of all these； has rendered those
inequalities of still less importance now。 The rate； too； upon
each district continuing always the same； the uncertainty of this
tax so far as it might be assessed upon the stock of any
individual； has been very much diminished； as well as rendered of
much less consequence。 If the greater part of the lands of
England are not rated to the land…tax at half their actual value；
the greater part of the stock of England is； perhaps； scarce
rated at the fiftieth part of its actual value。 In some towns the
whole land…tax is assessed upon houses； as in Westminster； where
stock and trade are free。 It is otherwise in London。
In all countries a severe inquisition into the circumstances
of private persons has been carefully avoided。
At Hamburg every inhabitant is obliged to pay to the state
one…fourth per cent of all that he possesses； and as the wealth
of the people of Hamburg consists principally in stock； this tax
may be considered as a tax upon stock。 Every man assesses
himself； and； in the presence of the magistrate； puts annually
into the public coffer a certain sum of money which he declares
upon oath to be one…fourth per cent of all that he possesses； but
without declaring what it amounts to； or being liable to any
examination upon that subject。 This tax is generally supposed to
be paid with great fidelity。 In a small republic； where the
people have entire confidence in their magistrates； are convinced
of the necessity of the tax for the support of the state； and
believe that it will be faithfully applied to that purpose； such
conscientious and voluntary payment may sometimes be expected。 It
is not peculiar to the people of Hamburg。
The canton of Unterwald in Switzerland is frequently ravaged
by storms and inundations； and is thereby exposed to
extraordinary expenses。 Upon such occasions the people assemble；
and every one is said to declare with the greatest frankness what
he is worth in order to be taxed accordingly。 At Zurich the law
orders that； in cases of necessity； every one should be taxed in
proportion to his revenue… the amount of which he is obliged to
declare upon oath。 They have no suspicion； it is said； that any
of their fellow…citizens will deceive them。 At Basel the
principal revenue of the state arises from a small custom upon
goods exported。 All the citizens make oath that they will pay
every three months all the taxes imposed by the law。 All
merchants and even all innkeepers are trusted with keeping
themselves the account of the goods which they sell either within
or without the territory。 At the end of every three months they
send this account to the treasurer with the amount of the tax
computed at the bottom of it。 It is not suspected that the
revenue suffers by this confidence。
To oblige every citizen to declare publicly upon oath the
amount of his fortune must not； it seems； in those Swiss cantons
be reckoned a hardship。 At Hamburg it would be reckoned the
greatest。 Merchants engaged in the hazardous protects of trade
all tremble at the thoughts of being obliged at all to expose the
real state of their circumstances。 The ruin of their credit and
the miscarriage of their projects； they foresee； would too often
be the consequence。 A sober and parsimonious people； who are
strangers to all such projects； do not feel that they have
occasion for any such concealment。
In Holland； soon after the exaltation of the late Prince of
Orange to the stadtholdership； a tax of two per cent； or the
fiftieth penny； as it was called； was imposed upon the whole
substance of every citizen。 Every citizen assessed himself and
paid his tax in the same manner as at Hamburg； and it was in
general supposed to have been paid with great fidelity。 The
people had at that time the greatest affection for their new
government； which they had just established by a general
insurrection。 The tax was to be paid but once； in order to
relieve the state in a particular exigency。 It was； indeed； too
heavy to be permanent。 In a country where the market rate of
interest seldom exceeds three per cent； a tax of two per cent
amounts to thirteen shillings and fourpence in the pound upon the
highest net revenue which is commonly drawn from stock。 It is a
tax which very few people could pay without encroaching more or
less upon their capitals。 In a particular exigency the people
may； from great public zeal； make a great effort； and give up
even a part of their capital in order to relieve the state。 But
it is impossible that they should continue to do so for any
considerable time； and if they did； the tax would ruin them so
completely as to render them altogether incapable of supporting
the state。
The tax upon stock imposed by the Land…tax Bill in England；
though it is proportioned to the capital； is not intended to
diminish or take away any part of that capital。 It is meant only
to be a tax upon the interest of money proportioned to that upon
the rent of land； so that when the latter is at four shillings in
the pound； the former may be at four shillings in the pound too。
The tax at Hamburg and the still more moderate tax of Unterwald
and Zurich are meant； in the same manner； to be taxes； not upon
the capital； but upon the interest or net revenue of stock。 That
of Holland was meant to be a tax upon the capital。
Taxes upon as Profit of particular Employments
In some countries extraordinary taxes are imposed upon the
profits of stock； sometimes when employed in particular branches
of trade； and sometimes when employed in agriculture。
Of the former kind are in England the tax upon hawkers and
pedlars； that upon hackney coaches and chairs； and that which the
keepers of ale…houses pay for a licence to retail ale and
spirituous liquors。 During the late war； another tax of the same
kind was proposed upon shops。 The war having been undertaken； it
was said； in defence of the trade of the country； the merchants；
who were to profit by it； ought to contribute towards the support
of it。
A tax； however； upon the profits of stock employed in any
particular branch of trade can never fall finally upon the
dealers （who must in all ordinary cases have their reasonable
profit； and where the competition is free can seldom have more
than that profit）； but always upon the consumers； who must be
obliged to pay in the price of the goods the tax which the dealer
advances； and generally with some overcharge。
A tax of this kind when it is proportioned to the trade of
the dealer is finally paid by the consumer； and occasions no
oppression to the dealer。 When it is not so proportioned； but is
the same upon all dealers； though in this case； too； it is
finally paid by the consumer； yet it favours the great； and
occasions some oppression to the small dealer。 The tax of five
shillings a week upon every hackney coach； and that of ten
shillings a year upon every hackney chair； so far as it is
advanced by the different keepers of such coaches and chairs； is
exactly enough proportioned to the extent of their respective
dealings。 It neither favours the great； nor oppresses the smaller
dealer。 The tax of twenty shillings a year for a licence to sell
ale； of forty shillings for a licence to sell spirituous liquors；
and of forty shillings more for a licence to sell wine； being the
same upon all retailers； must necessarily give some advantage to
the great； and occasion some oppression to the small dealers。 The
former must find it more easy to get back the tax in the price of
their goods than the latter。 The moderation of the tax； however；
renders this inequality of less importance； and it may to many
people appear not improper to give some discouragement to the
multiplication of little ale…houses。 The tax upon shops； it was
intended； should be the same upon all shops。 It could not well
have been otherwise。 It would have been impossible to proportion
with tolerable exactness the tax upon a shop to the extent of the
trade carried on in it without such an inquisition as would have
been altogether insupportable in a free country。 If the tax had
been considerable； it would have oppressed the small； and forced
almost the whole retail trade into the hands of the great
dealers。 The competition of the former being taken away； the
latter would have enjoyed a monopoly of the trade； and like all
other monopolists would soon have combined to raise their profits
much beyond what was necessary for the payment of the