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more or less fortunate enterprises and the little insignificant incidents which no one would trouble to avoid。 But these again are questions to which there is no solution； and we will not pursue them further。
CHAPTER IV。 THE ELBERFELD HORSES
1
I will first sum up as briefly as possible； for who so may still be ignorant of them； the facts which it is necessary to know if one would fully understand the marvelous story of the Elberfeld horses。 For a detailed account； I can refer him to Herr Karl Krall's remarkable work； Denkende Tiere （Leipsig； 1912）； which is the first and principal source of information amid a bibliography that is already assuming considerable dimensions。
Some twenty years ago there lived in Berlin an old misanthrope named Wilhelm von Osten。 He was a man with a small private income； a little eccentric in his ways and obsessed by one idea； the intelligence of animals。 He began by undertaking the education of a horse that gave him no very definite results。 But； in 1900； he became the owner of a Russian stallion who； under the name of Hans； to which was soon added the Homeric and well…earned prefix of Kluge； or Clever； was destined to upset all our notions of animal psychology and to raise questions that rank among the most unexpected and the most absorbing problems which man has yet encountered。
Thanks to Von Osten； whose patience； contrary to what one might think； was in no wise angelic but resembled rather a frenzied obstinacy； the horse made rapid and extraordinary progress。 This progress is very aptly described by Professor E。 Clarapede； of the university of Geneva； who says； in his excellent monograph on the Elberfeld horses：
〃After making him familiar with various common ideas； such as right； left； top； bottom and so on； his master began to teach him arithmetic by the intuitive method。 Hans was brought to a table on which were placed first one； then two； then several small skittles。 Von Osten； kneeling beside Hans； uttered the corresponding numbers； at the same time making him strike as many blows with his hoof as there were skittles on the table。 Before long； the skittles were replaced by figures written on a blackboard。 The results were astonishing。 The horse was capable not only of counting （that is to say； of striking as many blows as he was asked）； but also of himself making real calculations； of solving little problems。 。 。 。
〃But Hans could do more than mere sums： he knew how to read； he was a musician； distinguishing between harmonious and dissonant chords。 He also had an extraordinary memory： he could tell the date of each day of the current week。 In short； he got through all the tasks which an intelligent schoolboy of fourteen is able to perform。〃
2
The rumour of these curious experiments soon spread； and visitors flocked to the little stable…yard in which Von Osten kept his singular pupil at work。 The newspapers took the matter up； and a fierce controversy broke forth between those who believed in the genuineness of the phenomenon and those who saw no more in it than a barefaced fraud。 A scientific committee was appointed in 1904； consisting of professors of psychology and physiology； of the director of a zoological garden； of a circus manager and of veterinary surgeons and cavalry…officers。 The committee discovered nothing suspicious； but ventured upon no explanation。 A second committee was then appointed； numbering among its members Herr Oskar Pfungst； of the Berlin psychological laboratory。 Herr Pfungst； after a long series of experiments； drew up a voluminous and crushing report； in which he maintained that the horse was gifted with no intelligence； that it did not recognize either letters or figures； that it really knew neither how to calculate nor how to count； but merely obeyed the imperceptible； infinitesimal and unconscious signs which escaped from its master。
Public opinion veered round suddenly and completely。 People felt a sort of half…cowardly relief at beholding the prompt collapse of a miracle which was threatening to throw confusion into the self satisfied little fold of established truths。 Poor Von Osten protested in vain： no one listened to him； the verdict was given。 He never recovered from this official blow； he became the laughing…stock of all those whom he had at first astounded； and he died； lonely and embittered； on the 29th of June； 1909； at the age of seventy…one。
3
But he left a disciple whose faith had not been shaken by the general defection。 A well…to…do Elberfeld manufacturer； Herr Krall； had taken a great interest in Von Osten's labours and； during the latter years of the old man's life； had eagerly followed and even on occasion directed the education of the wonderful stallion。 Von Osten left Kluge Hans to him by will； on his own side； Krall had bought two Arab stallions； Mohammed and Zarif whose prowess soon surpassed that of the pioneer。 The whole question was reopened； events took a vigorous and decisive turn and； instead of a weary； eccentric old man； discouraged almost to sullenness and with no weapons for the struggle； the critics of the miracle found themselves faced by a new adversary； young and high…spirited； endowed with remarkable scientific instinct； quick…witted； scholarly and well able to defend himself。
His educational methods also differ materially from Von Osten's。 It was a strange thing； but deep down in the rather queer； cross…grained soul of the old enthusiast there had grown up gradually a sort of hatred for his four…legged pupil。 He felt the stallion's proud and nervous will resisting his with an obstinacy which he qualified as diabolical。 They stood up to each other like two enemies： and the lessons almost assumed the form of a tragic and secret struggle in which the animal's soul rebelled against man's domination。
Krall； on the other hand； adores his pupils； and this atmosphere of affection has in a manner of speaking humanized them。 There are no longer those sudden movements of wild panic which reveal the ancestral dread of man in the quietest and best…trained horse。 He talks to them long and tenderly； as a father might talk to his children； and we have the strange feeling that they listen to all that he says and understand it。 If they appear not to grasp an explanation or a demonstration； he will begin it all over again； analyze it； paraphrase it ten times in succession； with the patience of a mother。 And so their progress has been incomparably swifter and more astounding than that of old Hans。 Within a fortnight of the first lesson Mohammed did simple little addition and subtraction sums quite correctly。 He had learnt to distinguish the tens from the units； striking the latter with his right foot and the former with his left。 He knew the meaning of the symbols plus and minus。 Four days later； he was beginning multiplication and division。 In four months' time； he knew how to extract square and cubic roots； and； soon after； he learnt to spell and read by means of the conventional alphabet devised by Krall。
This alphabet； at the first glance； seems rather complicated。 For that matter； it is only a makeshift； but how could one find anything better？ The unfortunate horse； who is almost voiceless； has only one way in which to express himself： a clumsy hoof； which was not created to put thought into words。 It became necessary； therefore； to contrive； as in table…turning； a special alphabet； in which each letter is designated by a certain number of blows struck by the right foot and the left。 Here is the copy handed to visitors at Elberfeld to enable them to follow the horse's operations：
1 2 3 4 5 6 10 E N R S M C 20 A H L T A： CH 30 I D G W J SCH 40 O B F K O： 50 U V Z P U： 60 EI AU EU X Q
To mark the letter E； for instance； the stallion will strike one blow with his left foot and one with his right； for the letter L； two blows with his left foot and three with his right； and so on。 The horses have this alphabet so deeply imprinted in their memory that； practically speaking； they never make a mistake； and they strike their hoofs so quickly； one after the other； that at first one has some difficulty in following them。
Mohammed and Zariffor Zarif's progress was almost equal to that of his fellow…pupil； though he seems a little less gifted from the standpoint of higher mathematics…Mohammed and Zarif in this way reproduce the words spoken in their presence； spell the names of their visitors； reply to questions put to them and sometimes make little observations； little personal and spontaneous reflections to which we shall return presently。 They have created for their own use an inconceivably fantastic and phonetic system of spelling which they stubbornly refuse to relinquish and which often makes their writing rather difficult to read。 Deeming most of the vowels useless； they keep almost exclusively to the consonants； thus Zucker； for instance； becomes Z K R； Pferd； P F R T； or F R T； and so on。
I will not set forth in detail the many different proofs of intelligence lavished by the singular inhabitants of this strange stable。 They are not only first…class calculators； for whom the most repellent fractions and roots possess hardly any secrets： they distinguish sounds；