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in the case of the conspiracy of Stefano Porcari against Nicholas V （1453）； the very Pope who had done most for the prosperity of the city。 Porcari aimed at the complete overthrow of the papal authority； and had distinguished accomplices； who； though their names are not handed down to us； are certainly to be looked for among the Italian governments of the time。 Under the pontificate of the same man； Lorenzo Valla concluded his famous declamation against the gift of Constantine with the wish for the speedy secularization of the States of the Church。
The Catilinarian gang with which Pius II had to （1460） avowed with equal frankness their resolution to overthrow the government of the priests； and its leader； Tiburzio； threw the blame on the soothsayers； who had fixed the accom… plishment of his wishes for this very year。 Several of the chief men of Rome； the Prince of Taranto； and the Condottiere Jacopo Piccinino； were accomplices and supporters of Tiburzio。 Indeed； when we think of the booty which was accumulated in the palaces of wealthy prelatesthe conspirators had the Car… dinal of Aquileia especially in viewwe are surprised that； in an almost unguarded city； such attempts were not more frequent and more successful。 It was not without reason that Pius II preferred to reside anywhere rather than in Rome； and even Paul II was exposed to no small anxiety through a plot formed by some discharged abbreviators； who； under the command of Platina； besieged the Vatican for twenty days。 The Papacy must sooner or later have fallen a victim to such enterprises； if it had not stamped out the aristocratic factions under whose protection these bands of robbers grew to a head。
This task was undertaken by the terrible Sixtus IV。 He was the first Pope who had Rome and the neighbourhood thoroughly under his control； especially after his successful attack on the House of Colonna； and consequently； both in his Italian policy and in the internal affairs of the Church； he could venture to act with a defiant audacity； and to set at nought the complaints and threats to summon a council which arose from all parts of Europe。 He supplied himself with the necessary funds by simony； which suddenly grew to unheard…of proportions； and which extended from the appointment of cardinals down to the granting of the smallest favours。 Sixtus himself had not obtained the papal dignity without recourse to the same means。
A corruption so universal might sooner or later bring disastrous consequences on the Holy See； but they lay in the uncertain future。 It was otherwise with nepotism； which threatened at one time to destroy the Papacy altogether。 Of all the 'nipoti；' Cardinal Pietro Riario enjoyed at first the chief and almost exclusive favour of Sixtus。 He soon drew upon him the eyes of all Italy； partly by the fabulous luxury of his life； partly through the reports which were current of his irreligion and his political plans。 He bargained with Duke Galeazzo Maria of Milan （1473）； that the latter should become King of Lombardy； and then aid him with money and troops to return to Rome and ascend the papal throne； Sixtus； it appears； would have voluntarily yielded to him。 This plan； which； by making the Papacy hereditary； would have ended in the secularization of the papal State； failed through the sudden death of Pietro。 The second 'nipote；' Girolamo Riario； remained a layman； and did not seek the Pontificate。 From this time the 'nipoti；' by their endeavors to found principalities for themselves； became a new source of confusion to Italy。 It had already happened that the Popes tried to make good their feudal claims on Naples un favour of their relatives； but since the failure of Calixtus III。 such a scheme was no longer practicable； and Girolamo Riario； after the attempt to conquer Florence （and who knows how many others places） had failed； was forced to content himself with founding a State within the limits of the papal dominions themselves。 This was in so far justifiable as Romagna； with its princes and civic despots； threatened to shake off the papal supremacy altogether； and ran the risk of shortly falling a prey to Sforza or the Venetians； when Rome interfered to prevent it。 But who； at times and in circumstances like these； could guarantee the continued obedience of 'nipoti' and their descendants； now turned into sovereign rulers； to Popes with whom they had no further concern？ Even in his lifetime the Pope was not always sure of his own son or nephew； and the temptation was strong to expel the 'nipote' of a predecessor and replace him by one of his own。 The reaction of the whole system on the Papacy itself was of the most serious character； all means of compulsion； whether temporal or spiritual； were used without scruple for the most questionable ends； and to these all the other objects of the Apostolic See were made subordinate。 And when they were attained； at whatever cost of revolutions and proscriptions； a dynasty was founded which had no stronger interest than the destruction of the Papacy。
At the death of Sixtus； Girolamo was only able to maintain himself in his usurped principality of Forli and Imola by the utmost exertions of his own； and by the aid of the House of Sforza； to which his wife belonged。 In the conclave （1484） which followed the death of Sixtus that in which Innocent VIII was electedan incident occurred which seemed to furnish the Papacy with a new external guarantee。 Two cardinals； who； at the same time； were princes of ruling houses； Giovanni d'Aragona； son of King Ferrante； and Ascanio Sforza； brother of Lodovico il Moro； sold their votes with shameless effrontery； so that； at any rate； the ruling houses of Naples and Milan became interested； by their participation in the booty； in the continuance of the papal system。 Once again； in the following conclave； when all the cardinals but five sold themselves； Ascanio received enormous sums in bribes； not without cherishing the hope that at the next election he would himself be the favored candidate。
Lorenzo the Magnificent； on his part； was anxious that the House of Medici should not be sent away with empty hands。 He married his daughter Maddalena to the son of the new Pope the first who publicly acknowledged his children Franceschetto Cibo； and expected not only favours of all kinds for his own son； Cardinal Giovanni； afterwards Leo X； but also the rapid promotion of his son…in…law。 But with respect to the latter； he demanded impossibilities。 Under Innocent VIII there was no opportunity for the audacious nepotism by which States had been founded； since Franceschetto himself was a poor creature who； like his father the Pope； sought power only for the lowest purpose of allthe acquisition and accumulation of money。 The manner； however； in which father and son practiced this occupation must have led sooner or later to a final catastrophethe dissolution of the State。 If Sixtus had filled his treasury by the sale of spiritual dignities and favours； Innocent and his son； for their part； established an office for the sale of secular favours； in which pardons for murder and manslaughter were sold for large sums of money。 Out of every fine 150 ducats were paid into the papal exchequer； and what was over to Franceschetto。 Rome； during the latter part of this pontificate； swarmed with licensed and unlicensed assassins； the factions； which Sixtus had begun to put down； were again as active as ever； the Pope； well guarded in the Vatican； was satisfied with now and then laying a trap； in which a wealthy misdoer was occasionally caught。 For Franceschetto the chief point was to know by what means； when the Pope died； he could escape with well…filled coffers。 He betrayed himself at last； on the occasion of a false report （1490） of his father's death； he endeavored to carry off all the money in the papal treasury； and when this proved impossible； insisted that； at all events； the Turkish prince； Djem； should go with him； and serve as a living capital； to be advantageously disposed of； perhaps to Ferrante of Naples。 It is hard to estimate the political possibilities of remote periods； but we cannot help asking ourselves the question if Rome could have survived two or three pontificates of this kind。 Also with reference to the believing countries of Europe； it was imprudent to let matters go so far that not only travellers and pilgrims； but a whole embassy of Maximilian； King of the Romans； were stripped to their shirts in the neighbourhood of Rome； and that envoys had constantly to turn back without setting foot within the city。
Such a condition of things was incompatible with the conception of power and its pleasures which inspired the gifted Alexander VI （1492… 1503）； and the first event that happened was the restoration； at least provisionally； of public order； and the punctual payment of every salary。
Strictly speaking； as we are now discussing phases of Italian civilization； this pontificate might be passed over； since the Borgias are no more Italian than the House of Naples。 Alexander spoke Spanish in public with Cesare； Lucrezia； at her entrance to Ferrara； where she