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es。 Alexander spoke Spanish in public with Cesare； Lucrezia； at her entrance to Ferrara； where she wore a Spanish costume； was sung to by Spanish buffoons； their confidential servants consisted of Spaniards； as did also the most ill… famed company of the troops of Cesare in the war of 1500； and even his hangman； Don Micheletto； and his poisoner； Sebastiano Pinzon Cremonese； seem to have been of the same nation。 Among his other achievements； Cesare； in true Spanish fashion； killed； according to the rules of the craft； six wild bulls in an enclosed court。 But the Roman corruption； which seemed to culminate in this family； was already far advanced when they came to the city。
What they were and what they did has been often and fully described。 Their immediate purpose； which； in fact； they attained； was the complete subjugation of the pontifical State。 All the petty despots； who were mostly more or less refractory vassals of the Church； were expelled or destroyed； and in Rome itself the two great factions were annihilated； the so…called Guelph Orsini as well as the so…called Ghibelline Colonna。 But the means employed were of so frightful a character that they must certainly have ended in the ruin of the Papacy； had not the contemporaneous death of both father and son by poison suddenly intervened to alter the whole aspect of the situation。 The moral indignation of Christendom was certainly no great source of danger to Alexander； at home he was strong enough to extort terror and obedience； foreign rulers were won over to his side； and Louis XII even aided him to the utmost of his power。 The mass of the people throughout Europe had hardly a conception of what was passing in Central Italy。 The only moment which was really fraught with dangerwhen Charles VIII was in Italywent by with unexpected fortune； and even then it was not the Papacy as such that was in peril； but Alexander； who risked being supplanted by a more respectable Pope。 The great； permanent； and increasing danger for the Papacy lay in Alexander himself； and； above all； in his son Cesare Borgia。
In the nature of the father； ambition； avarice； and sensuality were combined with strong and brilliant qualities。 All the pleasures of power and luxury he granted himself from the first day of his pontificate in the fullest measure。 In the choice of means to this end he was wholly without scruple； it was known at once that he would more than compensate himself for the sacrifices which his election had involved； and that the seller would far exceed the simony of the buyer。 It must be remembered that the vice…chancellorship and other offices which Alexander had formerly held had taught him to know better and turn to more practical account the various sources of revenue than any other member of the Curia。 As early as 1494； a Carmelite； Adam of Genoa； who had preached at Rome against simony； was found murdered in his bed with twenty wounds。 Hardly a single cardinal was appointed without the payment of enormous sums of money。
But when the Pope in course of time fell under the influence of his son Cesare Borgia； his violent measures assumed that character of devilish wickedness which necessarily reacts upon the ends pursued。 What was done in the struggle with the Roman nobles and with the tyrants of Romagna exceeded in faithlessness and barbarity even that measure to which the Aragonese rulers of Naples had already accustomed the world； and the genius for deception was also greater。 The manner in which Cesare isolated his father； murdering brother； brother…in…law； and other relations or courtiers； whenever their favour with the Pope or their position in any other respect became inconvenient to him； is literally appalling。 Alexander was forced to acquiesce in the murder of his best…loved son； the Duke of Gandia； since he himself lived in hourly dread of Cesare。
What were the final aims of the latter？ Even in the last months of his tyranny； when he had murdered the Condottieri at Sinigaglia； and was to all intents and purposes master of the ecclesiastical State （1503）； those who stood near him gave the modest reply that the Duke merely wished to put down the factions and the despots； and all for the good of the Church only； that for himself he desired nothing more than the lordship of the Romagna； and that he had earned the gratitude of all the following Popes by ridding them of the Orsini and Colonna。 But no one will accept this as his ultimate design。 The Pope Alexander himself； in his discussions with the Venetian ambassador； went further than this； when committing his son to the protection of Venice： 'I will see to it；' he said； that one day the Papacy shall belong either to him or to you。' Cesare indeed added that no one could become Pope without the consent of Venice； and for this end the Venetian cardinals had only to keep well together。 Whether he referred to himself or not we are unable to say； at all events； the declaration of his father is sufficient to prove his designs on the pontifical throne。 We further obtain from Lucrezia Borgia a certain amount of indirect evidence； in so far as certain passages in the poems of Ercole Strozza may be the echo of expressions which she as Duchess of Ferrara may easily have permitted herself to use。 Here； too； Cesare's hopes of the Papacy are chiefly spoken of； but now and then a supremacy over all Italy is hinted at； and finally we are given to understand that as temporal ruler Cesare's projects were of the greatest； and that for their sake he had formerly surrendered his cardinalate。 In fact； there can be no doubt whatever that Cesare； whether chosen Pope or not after the death of Alexander； meant to keep possession of the pontifical State at any cost； and that this； after all the enormities he had committed； he could not as Pope have succeeded in doing permanently。 He； if anybody； could have secularized the States of the Church； and he would have been forced to do so in order to keep them。 Unless we are much deceived； this is the real reason of the secret sympathy with which Machiavelli treats the great criminal； from Cesare； or from nobody； could it be hoped that he 'would draw the steel from the wound；' in other words； annihilate the Papacythe source of all foreign intervention and of all the divisions of Italy。 The intriguers who thought to divine Cesare's aims； when holding out to him hopes of the Kingdom of Tuscany； seem to have been dismissed with contempt。
But all logical conclusions from his premises are idle； not because of the unaccountable genius； which in fact characterized him as little as it did Wallenstein； but because the means which he employed were not compatible with any large and consistent course of action。 Perhaps； indeed； in the very excess of his wickedness some prospect of salvation for the Papacy may have existed even without the accident which put an end to his rule。
Even if we assume that the destruction of the petty despots in the pontifical State had gained for him nothing but sympathy； even if we take as proof of his great projects the army composed of the best soldiers and officers in Italy； with Leonardo da Vinci as chief engineer； which followed his fortunes in 1502； other facts nevertheless bear such a character of unreason that our judgement； like that of contemporary observers； is wholly at a loss to explain them。 One fact of this kind is the devastation and maltreatment of the newly…won State； which Cesare still intended to keep and to rule over。 Another is the condition of Rome and of the Curia in the last decades of the pontificate。 Whether it were that father and son had drawn up a formal list of proscribed persons； or that the murders were resolved upon one by one； in either case the Borgias were bent on the secret destruction of all who stood in their way or whose inheritance they coveted。 Of this； money and movable goods formed the smallest part； it was a much greater source of profit for the Pope that the incomes of the clerical dignitaries in question were suspended by their death； and that he received the revenues of their offices while vacant； and the price of these offices when they were filled by the successors of the murdered men。 The Venetian ambassador Paolo Capello reported in the year 1500： 'Every night four or five murdered men are discoveredbishops； prelates and othersso that all Rome is trembling for fear of being destroyed by the Duke （Cesare）。' He himself used to wander about Rome in the night…time with his guards； and there is every reason to believe that he did so not only because； like Tiberius； he shrank from showing his now repulsive features by daylight； but also to gratify his insane thirst for blood； perhaps even on persons unknown to him。
As early as the year 1499 the despair was so great and so general that many of the Papal guards were waylaid and put to death… But those whom the Borgias could not assail with open violence fell victims to their poison。 For the cases in which a certain amount of discretion seemed requisite； a white powder of an agreeable taste was made use of； which did not work on the spot； but slowly and gradually； a