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eproduction of antiquity in literature and life。 One word more on the studies themselves may still be permissible。
Greek scholarship was chiefly confined to Florence and to the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries。 The impulse which had proceeded from Petrarch and Boccaccio； superficial as was their own acquaintance with Greek； was powerful； but did not tell immediately on their contemporaries； except a few； on the other hand； the study of Greek literature died out about the year 1520 with the last of the colony of learned Greek exiles； and it was a singular piece of fortune that northerners like Erasmus； the Stephani； and Budaeus had meanwhile made themselves masters of the language。 That colony had begun with Manuel Chrysoloras and his relation John； and with George of Trebizond。 Then followed； about and after the time of the conquest of Constantinople； John Argyropulos； Theodore Gaza； Demetrios Chalcondylas； who brought up his sons Theophilos and Basilios to be excellent Hellenists； Andronikos Kallistos； Marcos Musuros and the family of Lascaris； not to mention others。 But after the subjection of Greece by the Turks was completed； the succession of scholars was maintained only by the sons of the fugitives and perhaps here and there by some Candian or Cyprian refugee。 That the decay of Hellenistic studies began about the time of the death of Leo X was due partly to a general change of intellectual attitude； and to a certain satiety of classical influences which now made itself felt； but its coincidence with the death of the Greek fugitives was not wholly a matter of accident。 The study of Greek among the Italians appears； if we take the year 1500 as our standard； to have been pursued with extraordinary zeal。 Many of those who then learned the language could still speak it half a century later； in their old age； like the Popes Paul III and Paul IV。 But this sort of mastery of the study presupposes intercourse with native Greeks。
Besides Florence； Rome and Padua nearly always maintained paid teachers of Greek； and Verona； Ferrara； Venice； Perugia； Pavia and other cities occasional teachers。 Hellenistic studies owed a priceless debt to the press of Aldo Manuzio at Venice； where the most important and voluminous writers were for the first time printed in the original。 Aldo ventured his all in the enterprise； he was an editor and publisher whose like the world has rarely seen。
Along with this classical revival； Oriental studies now assumed considerable proportions。 The controversial writings of the great Florentine statesman and scholar； Giannozzo Manetti （d。 1459） against the Jews afford an early instance of a complete mastery of their language and science。 His son Agnolo was from his childhood instructed in Latin； Greek and Hebrew。 The father； at the bidding of Nicholas V； translated the whole Bible afresh； as the philologists of the time insisted on giving up the 'Vulgata。'
Many other humanists devoted themselves before Reuchlin to the study of Hebrew； among them Pico della Mirandola； who was not satisfied with a knowledge of the Hebrew grammar and ScriptureS； but penetrated into the Jewish Cabbalah and even made himself as familiar with the literature of the Talmud as any Rabbi。
Among the Oriental languages； Arabic was studied as well as Hebrew。 The science of medicine； no longer satisfied with the older Latin translations of the great Arab physicians； had constant recourse to the originals； to which an easy access was offered by the Venetian consulates in the East； where Italian doctors were regularly kept。 Hieronimo Ramusio； a Venetian physician； translated a great part of Avicenna from the Arabic and died at Damascus in 1486。 Andrea Mongaio of Belluno lived long at Damascus for the purpose of studying Avicenna； learnt Arabic； and emended the author's text。 The Venetian government afterwards appointed him professor of this subject at Padua。
We must here linger for a moment over Pico della Mirandola； before passing on to the general effects of humanism。 He was the only man who loudly and vigorously defended the truth and science of all ages against the one…sided worship of classical antiquity。 He knew how to value not only Averroes and the Jewish investigators； but also the scholastic writers of the Middle Ages； according to the matter of their writings。 In one of his writings he makes them say； 'We shall live for ever； not in the schools of word…catchers； but in the circle of the wise； where they talk not of the mother of Andromache or of the sons of Niobe； but of the deeper causes of things human and divine； he who looks closely will see that even the barbarians had intelligence _（mercurium）； _not on the tongue but in the breast。' Himself writing a vigorous and not inelegant Latin； and a master of clear exposition； he despised the purism of pedants and the current over…estimate of borrowed forms； especially when joined； as they often are； with one… sidedness； and involving indifference to the wider truth of the things themselves。 Looking at Pico； we can guess at the lofty flight which Italian philosophy would have taken had not the counter…reformation annihilated the higher spiritual life of the people。
The Humanists
Who now were those who acted as mediators between their own age and a venerated antiquity； and made the latter a chief element in the culture of the former？
They were a crowd of the most miscellaneous sort； wearing one face today and another tomorrow； but they clearly felt themselves； and it was fully recognized by their time that they formed； a wholly new element in society。 The 'clerici vagantes' of the twelfth century may perhaps be taken as their forerun… nersthe same unstable existence； the same free and more than free views of life； and the germs at all events of the same pagan tendencies in their poetry。 But now； as competitor with the whole culture of the Middle Ages； which was essentially clerical and was fostered by the Church； there appeared a new civilization； founding itself on that which lay on the other side of the Middle Ages。 Its active representatives became influential because they knew what the ancients knew； because they tried to write as the ancients wrote； because they began to think； and soon to feel； as the ancients thought and felt。 The tradition to which they devoted themselves passed at a thousand points into genuine reproduction。
Some modern writers deplore the fact that the germs of a far more independent and essentially national culture； such as appeared in Florence about the year 1300； were afterwards so completely swamped by the humanists。 There was then； we are told； nobody in Florence who could not read； even the donkeymen sang the verses of Dante； the best Italian manuscripts which we possess belonged originally to Florentine artisans； the publication of a popular encyclopedia； like the 'Tesoro' of Brunetto Latini； was then possible； and all this was founded on d strength and soundness of character due to the universal participation in public affairs； to commerce and travel； and to the systematic reprobation of idleness。 The Florentines； it is urged； were at that time respected and influential throughout the whole world； and were called in that year； not without reason； by Pope Boniface VIII； 'the fifth element。' The rapid progress of humanism after the year 1400 paralysed native impulses。 Henceforth men looked only to antiquity for the solution of every problem； and consequently allowed literature to turn into mere quotation。 Nay； the very fall of civil freedom is partly ascribed to all this； since the new learning rested on obedience to authority； sacrificed municipal rights to Roman law； and thereby both sought and found the favour of the despots。
These charges will occupy us now and then at a later stage of our inquiry； when we shall attempt to reduce them to their true value； and to weigh the losses against the gains of this movement。 For the present we must confine ourselves to showing how the civilization even of the vigorous fourteenth century necessarily prepared the way for the complete victory of humanism； and how precisely the greatest representatives of the national Italian spirit were themselves the men who opened wide the gate for the measureless devotion to antiquity in the fifteenth century。
To begin with Dante。 If a succession of men of equal genius had presided over Italian culture； whatever elements their natures might have absorbed from the antique； they still could not fail to retain a characteristic and strongly…marked national stamp。 But neither Italy nor Western Europe produced another Dante； and he was and remained the man who first thrust antiquity into the foreground of national culture。 In the 'Divine Comedy' he treats the ancient and the Christian worlds； not indeed as of equal authority； but as parallel to one another。 Just as； at an earlier period of the Middle Ages； types and anti… types were sought in the history of the Old and New Testaments； so does Dante constantly bring together a Christian and a pagan illustration of the same fact。 It must be remembered that the Christian