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what can be thought of Frederick III？ His journeys to Italy have the air of holiday…trips or pleasure…tours made at the expense of those who wanted him to confirm their prerogatives； or whose vanity is flattered to entertain an emperor。 The latter was the case with Alfonso of Naples； who paid 150；000 florins for the honour of an imperial visit。 At Ferrara； on his second return from Rome （1469）； Frederick spent a whole day without leaving his chamber； distributing no less than eighty titles； he created knights； counts； doctors。 notariescounts； indeed； of different degrees； as； for instance； counts palatine； counts with the right to create doctors up to the number of five； counts with the rights to legitimatize bastards； to appoint notaries； and so forth。 The Chancellor； however； expected in return for the patents in question a gratuity which was thought excessive at Ferrara。 The opinion of Borso； himself created Duke of Modena and Reggio in return for an annual payment of 4；000 gold florins； when his imperial patron was distributing titles and diplomas to all the little court； is not mentioned。 The humanists； then the chief spokesmen of the age； were divided in opinion according to their personal interests； while the Emperor was greeted by some of them with the conventional acclamations of the poets of imperial Rome。 Poggio confessed that he no longer knew what the coronation meant： in the old times only the victorious Imperator was crowned； and then he was crowned with laurel。
With Maximilian I begins not only the general intervention of foreign nations； but a new imperial policy with regard to Italy。 The first step the investiture of Lodovico il Moro with the duchy of Milan and the exclusion of his unhappy nephew was not of a kind to bear good fruits。 According to the modern theory of intervention when two parties are tearing a country to pieces； a third may step in and take its share； and on this principle the empire acted。 But right and justice could be involved no longer。 When Louis XI was expected in Genoa （1507）； and the imperial eagle was removed from the hall of the ducal palace and replaced by painted lilies； the historian Senarega asked what； after all； was the meaning of the eagle which so many revolutions had spared； and what claims the empire had upon Genoa。 No one knew more about the matter than the old phrase that Genoa was a _camera imperii_。 In fact； nobody in Italy could give a clear answer to any such questions。 At length when Charles V held Spain and the empire together； he was able by means of Spanish forces to make good imperial claims： but it is notorious that what he thereby gained turned to the profit； not of the empire； but of the Spanish monarchy。
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Closely connected with the political illegitimacy of the dynasties of the fifteenth century was the public indifference to legitimate birth； which to foreigners for example； to Commines appeared so remarkable。 The two things went naturally together。 In northern countries； as in Burgundy； the illegitimate offspring were provided for by a distinct class of appanages； such as bishoprics and the like： in Portugal an illegitimate line maintained itself on the throne only by constant effort； in Italy。 on the contrary； there no longer existed a princely house where even in the direct line of descent； bastards were not patiently tolerated。 The Aragonese monarchs of Naples belonged to the illegitimate line； Aragon itself falling to the lot of the brother of Alfonso I。 The great Federigo of Urbino was； perhaps； no Montefeltro at all。 When Pius II was on his way to the Congress of Mantua （1459）； eight bastards of the house of Este rode to meet him at Ferrara； among them the reigning duke Borso himself and two illegitimate sons of his illegitimate brother and predecessor Lionello。 The latter had also had a lawful wife； herself an illegitimate daughter of Alfonso I of Naples by an African woman。 The bastards were often admitted to the succession where the lawful children were minors and the dangers of the situation were pressing； and a rule of seniority became recognized； which took no account of pure or impure birth。 The fitness of the individual； his worth and capacity； were of more weight than all the laws and usages which prevailed elsewhere in the West。 It was the age； indeed； in which the sons of the Popes were founding dynasties。 In the sixteenth century； through the influence of foreign ideas and of the counter… reformation which then began； the whole question was judged more strictly： Varchi discovers that the succession of the legitimate children 'is ordered by reason； and is the will of heaven from eternity。' Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici founded his claim to the lordship of Florence on the fact that he was perhaps the fruit of a lawful marriage； and at all events son of a gentlewoman； and not； like Duke Alessandro； of a servant girl。 At this time began those morganatic marriages of affection which in the fifteenth century； on grounds either of policy or morality； would have had no meaning at all。
But the highest and the most admired form of illegitimacy in the fifteenth century was presented by the Condottiere； who whatever may have been his origin； raised himself to the position of an independent ruler。 At bottom； the occupation of Lower Italy by the Normans in the eleventh century was of this character。 Such attempts now began to keep the peninsula in a constant ferment。
It was possible for a Condottiere to obtain the lordship of a district even without usurpation； in the case when his employer； through want of money or troops； provided for him in this way； under any circumstances the Condottiere； even when he dismissed for the time the greater part of his forces； needed a safe place where he could establish his winter quarters； and lay up his stores and provisions。 The first example of a captain thus portioned is John Hawkwood； who was invested by Gregory XI with the lordship of Bagnacavallo and Cotignola。 When with Alberigo da Barbiano Italian armies and leaders appeared upon the scene； the chances of founding a principality； or of increasing one already acquired； became more frequent。 The first great bacchanalian outbreak of military ambition took place in the duchy of Milan after the death of Giangaleazzo （1402）。 The policy of his two sons was chiefly aimed at the destruction of the new despotisms founded by the Condottieri； and from the greatest of them； Facino Cane； the house of Visconti inherited； together with his widow； a long list of cities； and 400；000 golden florins； not to speak of the soldiers of her first husband whom Beatrice di Tenda brought with her。 From henceforth that thoroughly immoral relation between the governments and their Condottieri； which is characteristic of the fifteenth century； became more and more common。 An old storyone of those which are true and not true； everywhere and nowheredescribes it as follows： The citizens of a certain town （Siena seems to be meant） had once an officer in their service who had freed them from foreign aggression； daily they took counsel how to recompense him； and concluded that no reward in their power was great enough； not even if they made him lord of the city。 At last one of them rose and said； 'Let us kill him and then worship him as our patron saint。' And so they did； following the example set the Roman senate with Romulus。 In fact the Condottieri had reason to fear none so much as their employers： if they were successful； they became dangerous； and were put out of the way like Roberto Malatesta just after the victory he had won for Sixtus IV （1482）； if they failed； the vengeance of the Venetians on Carmagnola showed to what risks they were exposed （1432）。 It is characteristic of the moral aspect of the situation that the Condottieri had often to give their wives and children as hostages； and notwithstanding this； neither felt nor inspired confidence。 They must have been heroes of abnegation； natures like Belisarius himself； not to be cankered by hatred and bitterness； only the most perfect goodness could save them from the most monstrous iniquity。 No wonder then if we find them full of contempt for all sacred things； cruel and treacher… ous to their fellows men who cared nothing whether or no they died under the ban of the Church。 At the same time； and through the force of the same conditions； the genius and capacity of many among them attained the highest conceivable development； and won for them the admiring devotion of their followers； their armies are the first in modern history in which the personal credit of the leader is the one moving power。 A brilliant example is shown in the life of Francesco Sforza； no prejudice of birth could prevent him from winning and turning to account when he needed it a boundless devotion from each individual with whom he had to deal； it happened more than once that his enemies laid down their arms at the sight of him； greeting him reverently with uncovered heads； each honoring in him 'the common father of the men…at…arms。' The race of the Sforza has this special interest that from the ve