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Together with these there appeared in the sixteenth century the classical style of Italian correspondence； at the head of which stands Bembo again。 Its form is wholly modern； and deliberately kept free from Latin influence； and yet its spirit is thoroughly penetrated and possessed by the ideas of antiquity。
But at a time and among a people where 'listening' was among the chief pleasures of life； and where every imagination was filled with the memory of the Roman senate and its great speakers； the orator occupied a far more brilliant place than the letter…writer。 Eloquence had shaken off the influence of the Church； in which it had found a refuge during the Middle Ages； and now became an indispensable element and ornament of all elevated lives。 Many of the social hours which are now filled with music were then given to Latin or Italian oratory； with results which every reader can imagine。
The social position of the speaker was a matter of perfect indifference； what was desired was simply the most cultivated humanistic talent。 At the court of Borso of Ferrara； the Duke's physician； Girolamo da Castello； was chosen to deliver the congratulatory address on the visits of Frederick III and of Pius II。 Married laymen ascended the pulpits of the churches at any scene of festivity or mourning） and even on the feastdays of the saints。 It struck the non…Italian members of the Council of Basle as something strange that the Archbishop of Milan should summon Aeneas Sylvius； who was then unordained； to deliver a public discourse at the feast of Saint Ambrose； but they suffered it in spite of the murmurs of the theologians； and listened to the speaker with the greatest curiosity。
Let us glance for a moment at the most frequent and important occasions of public speaking。
It was not for nothing； in the first place； that the ambassadors from one State to another received the title of orators。 Whatever else might be done in the way of secret negotiation； the envoy never failed to make a public appearance and deliver a public speech； under circumstances of the greatest possible pomp and ceremony。 As a rule； however numerous the embassy might be； one individual spoke for all； but it happened to Pius II； a critic before whom all were glad to be heard； to be forced to sit and listen to a whole deputation； one after another。 Learned princes who had the gift of speech were themselves fond of discoursing in Latin or Italian。 The children of the House of Sforza were trained to this exercise。 The boy Galeazzo Maria delivered in 1455 a fluent speech before the Great Council at Venice； and his sister Ippolita saluted Pope Pius II with a graceful address at the Congress of Mantua （1459）。 Pius himself through all his life did much by his oratory to prepare the way for his final elevation to the Papal chair。 Great as he was both as scholar and diplomatist； he would probably never have become Pope without the fame and the charm of his eloquence。 'For nothing was more lofty than the dignity of his oratory。' Without doubt this was a reason why multitudes held him to be the fittest man for the office even before his election。
Princes were also commonly received on public occasions with speeches； which sometimes lasted for hours。 This happened of course only when the prince was known as a lover of eloquence； or wished to pass for such； and when a competent speaker was present； whether university professor； official； ecclesiastic； physician； or court…scholar。 Every other political opportunity was seized with the same eagerness； and according to the reputation of the speaker； the concourse of the lovers of culture was great or small。 At the yearly change of public officers； and even at the consecration of new bishops； a humanist was sure to come forward； and sometimes addressed his audience in hexameters or Sapphic verses。 Often a newly appointed official was himself forced to deliver a speech more or less relevant to his department； as； for instance； on justice； and lucky for him if he were well up in his part！ At Florence even the Condottieri； whatever their origin or education might be； were compelled to accommodate themselves to the popular sentiment； and on receiving the insignia of their office； were harangued before the assembled people by the most learned secretary of state。 It seems that beneath or close to the Loggia de' Lanzithe porch where the government was wont to appear solemnly before the people a tribune or platform _（rostra； ringhiera） _was erected for such purposes。
Anniversaries； especially those of the death of princes； were commonly celebrated by memorial speeches。 Even the funeral oration strictly so called was generally entrusted to a humanist； who delivered it in church； clothed in a secular dress； nor was it only princes； but officials； or persons otherwise distinguished； to whom this honour was paid。 This was also the case with the speeches delivered at weddings or betrothals； with the difference that they seem to have been made in the palace； instead of in church； like that of Filelfo at the betrothal of Anna Sforza to Alfonso of Este in the castle of Milan。 It is still possible that the ceremony may have taken place in the chapel of the castle。 Private families of distinction no doubt also employed such wedding orators as one of the luxuries of high life。 At Ferrara； Guarino was requested on these occasions to send some one or other of his pupils。 The clergy performed only the purely religious ceremonies at weddings and funerals。
The academical speeches； both those made at the installation of a new teacher and at the opening of a new course of lectures were delivered by the professor himself； and treated as occasions of great rhetorical display。 The ordinary university lectures also usually had an oratorical character。
With regard to forensic eloquence； the quality of the audience determined the form of speech。 In case of need it was enriched with all sorts of philosophical and antiquarian learning。
As a special class of speeches we may mention the address made in Italian on the battlefield； either before or after the combat。 Federigo of Urbino was esteemed a classic in this style； he used to pass round among his squadrons as they stood drawn up in order of battle； inspiring them in turn with pride and enthusiasm。 Many of the speeches in the military historians of the fifteenth century； as for instance in Porcellius； may be； in part at least； imaginary； but may be also in part faithful representations of words actually spoken。 The addresses again which were delivered to the Florentine Militia； organized in 1506 chiefly through the influence of Machiavelli； and which were spoken first at reviews； and afterwards at special annual festivals； were of another kind。 They were simply general appeals to the patriotism of the hearers； and were addressed to the assembled troops in the church of each quarter of the city by a citizen in armor； sword in hand。
Finally； the oratory of the pulpit began in the fifteenth century to lose its distinctive peculiarities。 Many of the clergy had entered into the circle of classical culture； and were ambitious of success in it。 The street…preacher Bernardino da Siena； who even in his lifetime passed for a saint and who was worshipped by the populace； was not above taking lessons in rhetoric from the famous Guarino； although he had only to preach in Italian。 Never indeed was more expected from preachers than at that time especially from the Lenten preachers； and there were not a few audiences which could not only tolerate； but which demanded a strong dose of philosophy from the pulpit。 But we have here especially to speak of the distinguished occasional preachers in Latin。 Many of their opportunities had been taken away from them； as has been observed； by learned laymen。 Speeches on particular saints' days； at weddings and funerals； or at the installation of a bishop； and even the introductory speech at the first mass of a clerical friend； or the address at the festival of some religious order； were all left to laymen。 But at all events at the Papal court in the fifteenth century； whatever the occasion might be； the preachers were generally monks。 Under Sixtus IV； Giacomo da Volterra regularly enumerates these preachers； and criticizes them according to the rules of the art。 Fedra Inghirami； famous as an orator under Julius II； had at least received holy orders and was canon at St。 John Lateran； and besides him； elegant Latinists were now common enough among the prelates。 In this matter； as in others； the exaggerated privileges of the profane humanists appear lessened in the sixteenth century on which point we shall presently speak more fully。
What now was the subject and general character of these speeches？ The national gift of eloquence was not wanting to the Italians of the Middle Ages； and a so…called 'rhetoric' belonged from the first to the seven liberal arts； but so far as the revival of the ancient methods is concerned； this merit must be ascribed； according to Filippo Villani； to the Florentine Bruno Casini； who died of the plague in 1348。 With the practical