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life travelled； now through this country； now through that； without ever mounting a horse； who never had a penny of his own； rejected all honours and distinctions； and after a gay old age； died in his eighty…fourth year； without； if we except a fall from a ladder； having ever known an hour of sickness。 And what was the difference between such a man and the humanists？ The latter had more free will； more subjectivity； than they could turn to purposes of happiness。 The mendicant friar； who had lived from his boyhood in the monastery； and never eaten or slept except by rule； ceased to feel the com… pulsion under which he lived。 Through the power of this habit he led； amid all outward hardships； a life of inward peace； by which he impressed his hearers far more than by his teaching。 Looking at him； they could believe that it depends on ourselves whether we bear up against misfortune or surrender to it。 'Amid want and toil he was happy； because he willed to be so； because he had contracted no evil habits； was not capricious； inconstant； immoderate； but was always contented with little or nothing。' If we heard Contarini himself； religious motives would no doubt play a part in the argumentbut the practical philosopher in sandals speaks plainly enough。 An allied character； but placed in other circumstances； is that of Fabio Calvi of Ravenna； the commentator of Hippocrates。 He lived to a great age in Rome； eating only pulse 'like the Pythagoreans；' and dwelt in a hovel little better than the tub of Diogenes。 Of the pension which Pope Leo gave him； he spent enough to keep body and soul together； and gave the rest away。 He was not a healthy man； like Fra Urbano； nor is it likely that； like him； he died with a smile on his lips。 At the age of ninety； in the sack of Rome； he was dragged away by the Spaniards； who hoped for a ransom； and died of hunger in a hospital。 But his name has passed into the kingdom of the immortals； for Raphael loved the old man like a father； and honoured him as a teacher； and came to him for advice in all things。 Perhaps they discoursed chiefly of the projected restoration of ancient Rome； perhaps of still higher matters。 Who can tell what a share Fabio may have had in the conception of the School of Athens； and in other great works of the master？
We would gladly close this part of our essay with the picture of some pleasing and winning character。 Pomponius Laetus； of whom we shall briefly speak； is known to us principally through the letter of his pupil Sabellicus； in which an antique coloring is purposely given to his character。 Yet many of its features are clearly recognizable。 He was a bastard of the House of the Neapolitan Sanseverini； princes of Salerno； whom he nevertheless refused to recognize； writing； in reply to an invitation to live with them； the famous letter： 'Pomponius Laetus cognatis et propinquis suis salutem。 Quod petitis fieri non potest。 Valete。' t An insignificant little figure； with small； quick eyes； and quaint dress； he lived； during the last decades of the fifteenth century； as professor in the University of Rome； either in his cottage in a garden on the Esquiline hill； or in his vineyard on the Quirinal。 In the one he bred his ducks and fowls； the other he cultivated according to the strictest precepts of Cato； Varro； and Columella。 He spent his holidays in fishing or bird…catching in the Campagna； or in feasting by some shady spring or on the banks of the Tiber。 Wealth and luxury he despised。 Free himself from envy and uncharitable speech； he would not suffer them in others。 It was only against the hierarchy that he gave his tongue free play； and passed； till his latter years； for a scorner of religion altogether。 He was involved in the persecution of the humanists begun by Pope Paul II； and surrendered to this pontiff by the Venetians； but no means could be found to wring unworthy confessions from him。 He was afterwards befriended and supported by popes and prelates； and when his house was plundered in the disturbances under Sixtus IV； more was collected for him than he had lost。 No teacher was more conscientious。 Before daybreak he was to be seen descending the Esquiline with his lantern； and on reaching his lecture…room found it always filled to overflowing。 A stutter compelled him to speak with care； but his delivery was even and effective。 His few works give evidence of careful writing。 No scholar treated the text of ancient authors more soberly and accurately。 The remains of antiquity which surrounded him in Rome touched him so deeply that he would stand before them as if entranced； or would suddenly burst into tears at the sight of them。 As he was ready to lay aside his own studies in order to help others； he was much loved and had many friends； and at his death； even Alexander VI sent his courtiers to follow the corpse； which was carried by the most distinguished of his pupils。 The funeral service in the Aracceli was attended by forty bishops and by all the foreign ambassadors。
It was Laetus who introduced and conducted the representations of ancient； chiefly Plautine； plays in Rome。 Every year； he celebrated the anniversary of the foundation of the city by a festival； at which his friends and pupils recited speeches and poems。 Such meetings were the origin of what acquired； and long retained； the name of the Roman Academy。 It was simply a free union of individuals； and was connected with no fixed institution。 Besides the occasions mentioned； it met at the invitation of a patron； or to celebrate the memory of a deceased member； as of Platina。 At such times； a prelate belonging to the academy would first say mass； Pomponio would then ascend the pulpit and deliver a speech； someone else would then follow him and recite an elegy。 The customary banquet； with declamations and recitations； concluded the festival； whether joyous or serious； and the academicians； notably Platina himself； early acquired the reputation of epicures。 At other times； the guests performed farces in the old Atellan style。 As a free association of very varied elements； the academy lasted in its original form down to the sack of Rome； and included among its hosts Angelus Coloccius； Johannes Corycius and others。 Its precise value as an element in the intellectual life of the people is as hard to estimate as that of any other social union of the same kind； yet a man like Sadoleto reckoned it among the most precious memories of his youth。 A large number of other academies appeared and passed away in many Italian cities； according to the number and significance of the humanists living in them； and to the patronage bestowed by the great and wealthy。 Of these we may mention the Academy of Naples； of which Jovianus Pontanus was the centre； and which sent out a colony to Lecce； and that of Pordenone； which formed the court of the Condottiere Alviano。 The circle of Lodovico il Moro； and its peculiar importance for that prince； has been already spoken of。
About the middle of the sixteenth century； these associations seem to have undergone a complete change。 The humanists； driven in other spheres from their commanding position； and viewed askance by the men of the Counter…reformation； lost the control of the academies： and here； as elsewhere； Latin poetry was replaced by Italian。 Before long every town of the least importance had its academy； with some strange； fantastic name； and its own endowment and subscriptions。 Besides the recitation of verses； the new institutions inherited from their predecessors the regular banquets and the representation of plays； sometimes acted by the members themselves； sometimes under their direction by young amateurs； and sometimes by paid players。 The fate of the Italian stage； and afterwards of the opera； was long in the hands of these associations。
PART FOUR
THE DISCOVERY OF THE WORLD AND OF MAN
Journeys of the Italians
Freed from the countless bonds which elsewhere in Europe checked progress； having reached a high degree of individual development and been schooled by the teachings of antiquity； the Italian mind now turned to the discovery of the outward universe； and to the representation of it in speech and form。
On the journeys of the Italians to distant parts of the world； we can here make but a few general observations。 The Crusades had opened unknown distances to the European mind； and awakened in all the passion for travel and adventure。 It may be hard to indicate precisely the point where this passion allied itself with； or became the servant of； the thirst for knowledge； but it was in Italy that this was first and most completely the case。 Even in the Crusades the interest of the Italians was wider than that of other nations； since they already were a naval power and had commercial relations with the East。 From time immemorial the Mediterranean Sea had given to the nations that dwelt on its shores mental impulses different from those which governed the peoples of the North； and never； from the very structure of their character； could the Italians be adventurers in the sense which the word bore among the Teutons。 After they were once at home