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ommon father of the men…at…arms。' The race of the Sforza has this special interest that from the very beginning of its history we seem able to trace its endeavors after the crown。 The foundation of its fortune lay in the remarkable fruitfulness of the family； Francesco's father； Jacopo； himself a celebrated man； had twenty brothers and sisters； all brought up roughly at Cotignola； near Faenza； amid the perils of one of the endless Romagnole 'vendette' between their own house and that of the Pasolini。 The family dwelling was a mere arsenal and fortress； the mother and daughters were as warlike as their kinsmen。 In his thirtieth year Jacopo ran away and fled to Panicale to the Papal Condottiere Boldrino the man who even in death continued to lead his troops； the word of order being given from the bannered tent in which the embalmed body lay； till at last a fit leader was found to succeed him。 Jacopo； when he had at length made himself a name in the service of different Condottieri； sent for his relations； and obtained through them the same advantages that a prince derives from a numerous dynasty。 It was these relations who kept the army together when he lay a captive in the Castel dell'Uovo at Naples； his sister took the royal envoys prisoners with her own hands； and saved him by this reprisal from death。 It was an indication of the breadth and the range of his plans that in monetary affairs Jacopo was thoroughly trustworthy： even in his defeats he consequently found credit with the bankers。 He habitually protected the peasants against the license of his troops； and reluctantly destroyed or injured a conquered city。 He gave his well…known mistress； Lucia； the mother of Francesco； in marriage to another； in order to be free for a princely alliance。 Even the marriages of his relations were arranged on a definite plan。 He kept clear of the impious and profligate life of his contemporaries； and brought up his son Francesco to the three rules： 'Let other men's wives alone； strike none of your followers； or； if you do； send the injured man far away； don't ride a hard…mouthed horse； or one that drops his shoe。' But his chief source of influence lay in the qualities； if not of a great general； at least of a great soldier。 His frame was powerful； and developed by every kind of exercise； his peasant's face and frank manners won general popularity； his memory was marvelous； and after the lapse of years could recall the names of his followers； the number of their horses； and the amount of their pay。 His education was purely Italian： he devoted his leisure to the study of history； and had Greek and Latin authors translated for his use。 Francesco； his still more famous son； set his mind from the first on founding a powerful State； and through brilliant generalship and a faithlessness which hesitated at nothing； got possession of the great city of Milan （1450）。
His example was contagious。 Aeneas Sylvius wrote about this time： 'In our change…loving Italy； where nothing stands firm； and where no ancient dynasty exists； a servant can easily become a king。' One man in particular； who styles himself 'the man of fortune；' filled the imagination of the whole country： Giacomo Piccinino； the son of Niccolo；。 It was a burning question of the day if he； too； would succeed in founding a princely house。 The greater States had an obvious interest in hindering it； and even Francesco Sforza thought it would be all the better if the list of self…made sovereigns were not enlarged。 But the troops and captains sent against him； at the time； for instance； when he was aiming at the lordship of Siena； recognized their interest in supporting him： 'If it were all over with him； we should have to go back and plough our fields。' Even while besieging him at Orbetello； they supplied him with provisions： and he got out of his straits with honour。 But at last fate overtook him。 All Italy was betting on the result； when （1465） after a visit to Sforza at Milan； he went to King Ferrante at Naples。 In spite of the pledges given； and of his high connections； he was murdered in the Castel Nuovo。 Even the Condottieri who had obtained their dominions by inheritance； never felt themselves safe。 When Roberto Malatesta and Federigo of Urbino died on the same day （1482）； the one at Rome； the other at Bologna； it was found that each had recommended his State to the care of the other。 Against a class of men who themselves stuck at nothing； everything was held to be permissible。 Francesco Sforza； when quite young； had married a rich Calabrian heiress； Polissella Ruffo； Countess of Montalto； who bore him a daughter； an aunt poisoned both mother and child； and seized the inheritance。
From the death of Piccinino onwards； the foundations of new States by the Condottieri became a scandal not to be tolerated。 The four great Powers； Naples； Milan； the Papacy； and Venice； formed among themselves a political equilibrium which refused to allow of any disturbance。 In the States of the Church； which swarmed with petty tyrants； who in part were； or had been； Condottieri； the nephews of the Popes； since the time of Sixtus IV； monopolized the right to all such undertakings。 But at the first sign of a political crisis； the soldiers of fortune appeared again upon the scene。 Under the wretched administration of Innocent VIII it was near happening that a certain Boccalino； who had formerly served in the Burgundian army； gave himself and the town of Osimo； of which he was master； up to the Turkish forces； fortunately； through the intervention of Lorenzo the Magnificent； he proved willing to be paid off； and took himself away。 In the year 1495； when the wars of Charles VIII had turned Italy upside down； the Condottiere Vidovero； of Brescia； made trial of his strength； he had already seized the town of Cesena and murdered many of the nobles and the burghers； but the citadel held out； and he was forced to withdraw。 He then； at the head of a band lent him by another scoundrel； Pandolfo Malatesta of Rimini； son of the Roberto already spoken of； and Venetian Condottiere； wrested the town of Castelnuovo from the Archbishop of Ravenna。 The Venetians； fearing that worse would follow； and urged also by the Pope； ordered Pandolfo； 'with the kindest intentions；' to take an opportunity of arresting his good friend： the arrest was made； though 'with great regret；' whereupon the order came to bring the prisoner to the gallows。 Pandolfo was considerate enough to strangle him in prison； and then show his corpse to the people。 The last notable example of such usurpers is the famous Castellan of Musso； who during the confusion in the Milanese territory which followed the battle of Pavia （1525）； improvised a sovereignty on the Lake of Como。
The Smaller Despotisms
It may be said in general of the despotisms of the fifteenth century that the greatest crimes are most frequent in the smallest States。 In these； where the family was numerous and all the members wished to live in a manner befitting their rank； disputes respecting the inheritance were unavoidable。 Bernardo Varano of Camerino put （1434） two of his brothers to death； wishing to divide their property among his sons。 Where the ruler of a single town was distinguished by a wise； moderate； and humane government； and by zeal for intellectual culture； he was generally a member of some great family； or politically ＇ dependent on it。 This was the case； for example； with Alessandro Sforza； Prince of Pesaro； brother of the great Francesco； and stepfather of Federigo of Urbino （d。 1473）。 Prudent in administration； just and affable in his rule； he enjoyed； after ； years of warfare； a tranquil reign； collected a noble library； and passed his leisure in learned or religious conversation。 A man of the same class was Giovanni II Bentivoglio of Bologna （1463…1508）； whose policy was determined by that of the Este and the Sforza。 What ferocity and bloodthirstiness is found； on the other hand； among the Varani of Camerino； the Malatesta of Rimini； the Manfreddi of Faenza； and above all among the Baglioni of Perugia。 We find a striking picture of the events in the last…named family towards the close of the fifteenth century； in the admirable historical narratives of Graziani and Matarazzo。
The Baglioni were one of those families whose rule never took the shape of an avowed despotism。 It was rather a leadership exercised by means of their vast wealth and of their practical influence in the choice of public officers。 Within the family one man was recognized as head； but deep and secret jealousy prevailed among the members of the different branches。 Opposed to the Baglioni stood another aristocratic party； led by the family of the Oddi。 In 1487 the city was turned into a camp； and the houses of the leading citizens swarmed with bravos； scenes of violence were of daily occurrence。 At t he burial of a German student； who had been assassinated； two colleges took arms against one another； sometimes the bravos of the different houses even joined battle in the public square。 The complaints of the merchants and artisans were vain； the Papal Governors and nipoti held t