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ontano mentions with admiration instances of the fortitude of the savage inhabitants of the Abruzzi； in the biographical collections and in the novelists we meet with the figure of the heroic peasant…maiden who hazards her life to defend her family and her honour。
Such conditions made the poetical treatment of country life possible。 The first instance we shall mention is that of Battista Mantovano； whose eclogues； once much read and still worth reading； appeared among his earliest works about 1480。 They are a mixture of real and conventional rusticity； but the former tends to prevail。 They represent the mode of thought of a well…meaning village clergyman； not without a certain leaning to liberal ideas。 As Carmelite monk； the writer may have had occasion to mix freely with the peasantry。
But it is with a power of a wholly different kind that Lorenzo il Magnifico transports himself into the peasant's world。 His 'Nencia di Barberino' reads like a crowd of genuine extracts from the popular songs of the Florentine country； fused into a great stream of octaves。 The objectivity of the writer is such that we are in doubt whether the speakerthe young peasant Vallera； who declares his love to Nencia awakens his sympathy or ridicule。 The deliberate contrast to the conventional eclogue is unmistakable。 Lorenzo surrenders himself purposely to the realism of simple； rough country life； and yet his work makes upon us the impression of true poetry。
The 'Beca da Dicomano' of Luigi Pulci is an admitted counterpart to the 'Nencia' of Lorenzo。 But the deeper purpose is wanting。 The 'Beca' is written not so much from the inward need to give a picture of popular life； as from the desire to win the approbation of the educated Florentine world by a successful poem。 Hence the greater and more deliberate coarseness of the scenes； and the indecent jokes。 Nevertheless； the point of view of the rustic lover is admirably maintained。
Third in this company of poets comes Angelo Poliziano； with his 'Rusticus' in Latin hexameters。 Keeping clear of all imitation of Virgil's Georgics； he describes the year of the Tuscan peasant； beginning with the late autumn； when the countryman gets ready his new plough and prepares the seed for the winter。 The picture of the meadows in spring is full and beautiful； and the 'Summer' has fine passages； but the vintage…feast in autumn is one of the gems of modern Latin poetry。 Politian wrote poems in Italian as well as Latin； from which we may infer that in Lorenzo's circle it was possible to give a realistic picture of the passionate life of the lower classes。 His gipsy's love… song is one of the earliest products of that wholly modern tendency to put oneself with poetic consciousness into the position of another class。 This had probably been attempted for ages with a view to satire； and the opportunity for it was offered in Florence at every carnival by the songs of the maskers。 But the sympathetic understanding of the feeling of another class was new； and with it the 'Nencia' and this 'Canzone zingaresca' mark a new starting…point in the history of poetry。
Here； too； we must briefly indicate how culture prepared the way for artistic development。 From the time of the 'Nencia；' a period of eighty years elapses to the rustic genre…painting of Jacopo Bassano and his school。
In the next part of this work we shall show how differences of birth had lost their significance in Italy。 Much of this was doubtless owing to the fact that men and mankind were here first thoroughly and profoundly understood。 This one single result of the Renaissance is enough to fill us with everlasting thankfulness。 The logical notion of humanity was old enoughbut here the notion became a fact。
The loftiest conceptions on this subject were uttered by Pico della Mirandola in his Speech on the Dignity of Man； which may justly be called one of the noblest of that great age。 God； he tells us； made man at the close of the creation； to know the laws of the universe； to love its beauty； to admire its greatness。 He bound him to no fixed place； to no prescribed form of work； and by no iron necessity； but gave him freedom to will and to love。 'I have set thee；' says the Creator to Adam； 'in the midst of the world； that thou mayst the more easily behold and see all that is therein。 I created thee a being neither heavenly nor earthly； neither mortal nor immortal only； that thou mightest be free to shape and to overcome thyself。 Thou mayst sink into a beast； and be born anew to the divine likeness。 The brutes bring from their mother's body what they will carry with them as long as they live； the higher spirits are from the beginning； or soon after； what they will be for ever。 To thee alone is given a growth and a development depending on thine own free will。 Thou bearest in thee the germs of a universal life。'
Part Five
SOCIETY AND FESTIVALS
Equality of Classes
Every period of civilization which forms a complete and consistent whole manifests itself not only in political life； in religion； art； and science； but also sets its characteristic stamp on social life。 Thus the Middle Ages had their courtly and aristocratic manners and etiquette； differing but little in the various countries of Europe； as well as their peculiar forms of middle…class life。
Italian customs at the time of the Renaissance offer in these respects the sharpest contrasts to medievalism。 The foundation on which they rest is wholly different。 Social intercourse in its highest and most perfect form now ignored all distinctions of caste； and was based simply on the existence of an educated class as we now understand the word。 Birth and origin were without influence； unless combined with leisure and inherited wealth。 Yet this assertion must not be taken in an absolute and unqualified sense； since medieval distinctions still sometimes made themselves felt to a greater or less degree； if only as a means of maintaining equality with the aristocratic pretensions of the less advanced countries of Europe。 But the main current of the time went steadily towards the fusion of classes in the modern sense of the phrase。
The fact was of vital importance that； from certainly the twelfth century onwards； the nobles and the burghers dwelt together within the walls of the cities。 The interests and pleasures of both classes were thus identified； and the feudal lord learned to look at society from another point of view than that of his mountain castle。 The Church； too； in Italy never suffered itself； as in northern countries； to be used as a means of providing for the younger sons of noble families。 Bishoprics； abbacies； and canonries were often given from the most unworthy motives； but still not according to the pedigrees of the applicants； and if the bishops in Italy were more numerous； poorer； and； as a rule； destitute of all sovereign rights； they still lived in the cities where their cathedrals stood； and formed； together with their chapters； an important element in the cultivated society of the place。 In the age of despots and absolute princes which followed； the nobility in most of the cities had the motives and the leisure to give themselves up to a private life free from the political danger and adorned with all that was elegant and enjoyable； but at the same time hardly distinguishable from that of the wealthy burgher。 And after the time of Dante； when the new poetry and literature were in the hands of all Italy； when to this was added the revival of ancient culture and the new interest in man as such； when the successful Condottiere became a prince； and not only good birth； but legitimate birth； ceased to be indispensable for a throne； it might well seem that the age of equality had dawned； and the belief in nobility vanished for ever。
From a theoretical point of view； when the appeal was made to antiquity； the conception of nobility could be both justified and condemned from Aristotle alone。 Dante； for example； derives from Aristotle's definition； 'Nobility rests on excellence and inherited wealth；' his own saying； 'Nobility rests on personal excellence or on that of forefathers。' But elsewhere he is not satisfied with this conclusion。 He blames himself； because even in Paradise； while talking with his ancestor Cacciaguida； he made mention of his noble origin； which is but a mantle from which time is ever cutting something away； unless we ourselves add daily fresh worth to it。 And in the 'Convito' he disconnects 'nobile' and 'nobilita' from every condition of birth； and identifies the idea with the capacity for moral and intellectual eminence； laying a special stress on high culture by calling 'nobilita' the sister of 'filosofia。'
And as time went on； the greater the influence of humanism on the Italian mind； the firmer and more widespread became the conviction that birth decides nothing as to the goodness or badness of a man。 In the fifteenth century this was the prevailing opinion。 Poggio； in his dialogue 'On nobility；' agrees with his interlocutors Niccolo Niccoli； and Lorenzo Medici； brother of the great Cosimo that there is no other nobility than that