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held the first place。 The want of decent inns in the country may also be explained by the general insecurity of life and property。
To the first half of the sixteenth century belongs the manual of politeness which Giovanni della Casa； a Florentine by birth； published under the title 'Il Galateo。' Not only cleanliness in the strict sense of the word； but the dropping of all the habits which we consider unbecoming； is here prescribed with the same unfailing tact with which the moralist discerns the highest ethical truths。 In the literature of other countries the same lessons are taught； though less systematically； by the indirect influence of repulsive descriptions。
In other respects also； the 'Galateo' is a graceful and in… telligent guide to good mannersa school of tact and delicacy。 Even now it may be read with no small profit by people of all classes； and the politeness of European nations is not likely to outgrow its precepts。 So far as tact is an affair of the heart； it has been inborn in some men from the dawn of civilization； and acquired through force of will by others； but the Italians were the first to recognize it as a universal social duty and a mark of culture and education。 And Italy itself had altered much in the course of two centuries。 We feel at their close that the time for practical jokes between friends and acquaintances for 'burle' and 'beffe'was over in good society； that the people had emerged from the walls of the cities and had learned a cosmopolitan politeness and consideration。 We shall speak later on of the intercourse of society in the narrower sense。
Outward life； indeed； in the fifteenth and the early part of the sixteenth centuries； was polished and ennobled as among ？no other people in the world。 A countless number of those small things and great things which combine to make up what we： mean by comfort； we know to have first appeared in Italy。 In ｜ the well…paved streets of the Italian cities； driving was universal； while elsewhere in Europe walking or riding was the custom； and at all events no one drove for amusement。 We read in the novelists of soft； elastic beads； of costly carpets and bedroom furniture； of which we hear nothing in other countries。 We often hear especially of the abundance and beauty of the linen。 Much of all this is drawn within the sphere of art。 We note with admiration the thousand ways in which art ennobles luxury； not only adorning the massive sideboard or the light brackets with noble vases； clothing the walls with the movable splendor of tapestry； and covering the toilet…table with numberless graceful trifles； but absorbing whole branches of mechanical workespecially carpenteringinto its province。 All Western Europe； as soon as its wealth enabled it to do so； set to work in the same way at the close of the Middle Ages。 But its efforts produced either childish and fantastic toy…work； or were bound by the chains of a narrow and purely Gothic art； while the Renaissance moved freely； entering into the spirit of every task it undertook and working for a far larger circle of patrons and admirers than the northern artists。 The rapid victory of Italian decorative art over northern in the course sixteenth century is due partly to this fact； though the result of wider and more general causes。
Language and Society
The higher forms of social intercourse； which here meet us as a work of artas a conscious product and one of the highest products of national life have no more important foundation and condition than language。 In the most flourishing period of the Middle Ages； the nobility of Western Europe had sought to establish a 'courtly' speech for social intercourse as well as for poetry。 In Italy； too； where the dialects differed so greatly from one another； we find in the thirteenth century a so…called 'Curiale；' which was common to the courts and to the poets。 It is of decisive importance for Italy that the attempt was there seriously and deliberately made to turn this into the language of literature and society。 The introduction to the 'Cento Novelle Antiche；' which were put into their present shape before l 300； avows this object openly。 Language is here considered apart from its uses in poetry； its highest function is clear； simple； intelligent utterance in short speeches； epigrams； and answers。 This faculty was admired in Italy； as nowhere else but among the Greeks and Arabs： 'how many in the course long life have scarcely produced a single 〃bel parlare。〃 '
But the matter was rendered more difficult by the diversity of the aspects under which it was considered。 The writings of Dante transport us into the midst of the struggle。 His work 'On the Italian Language' is not only of the utmost importance for the subject itself； but is also the first complete treatise on any modern language。 His method and results belong to the history of linguistic science； in which they will always hold a high place。 We must here content ourselves with the remark that long before the appearance of this book the subject must have been one of daily and pressing importance； various dialects of Italy had long been the object of study and dispute； and that the birth of the one ideal was not accomplished without many throes。
Nothing certainly contributed so much to this end as the great poem of Dante。 The Tuscan dialect became the basis of the new national speech。 If this assertion may seem to some to go too far； as foreigners we may be excused； in a matter on which much difference of opinion prevails； for following the general belief。
Literature and poetry probably lost more than they gained by the contentious purism which was long prevalent in Italy； and which marred the freshness and vigor of many an able writer。 Others； again； who felt themselves masters of this magnificent language； were tempted to rely upon its harmony and flow； apart from the thought which it expressed。 A very insignificant melody； played upon such an instrument； can produce a very great effect。 But however this may be； it is certain that socially the language had great value。 It was； as it were； that the ； of eager language the crown of a noble and dignified behavior； and compelled the gentleman； both in his ordinary bearing and in exceptional moments to observe external propriety。 No doubt this classical garment； like the language of Attic society； served to drape much that was foul and malicious； but it was also the adequate expression of all that is noblest and most refined。 But politically and nationally it was of supreme importance； serving as an ideal home for the educated classes in all the States of the divided peninsula。 Nor was it the special property of the nobles or of any one class； but the poorest and humblest might learn it if they would。 Even now and perhaps more than ever in those parts of Italy where； as a rule； the most unintelligible dialect prevails； the stranger is often astonished at hearing pure and well…spoken Italian from the mouths of peasants or artisans； and looks in vain for anything analogous in France or in Germany； where even the educated classes retain traces of a provincial speech。 There is certainly a larger number of people able to read in Italy than we should be led to expect from the condition of many parts of the countryas for in… stance； the States of the Churchin other respects； but what is more important is the general and undisputed respect for pure language and pronunciation as something precious and sacred。 One part of the country after another came to adopt the classical dialect officially。 Venice； Milan； and Naples did so at the noontime of Italian literature； and partly through its influences。 It was not till the present century that Piedmont became of its own free will a genuine Italian province by sharing in this chief treasure of the peoplepure speech。 The dialects were from the beginning of the sixteenth century purposely left to deal with a certain class of subjects； serious as well as comic； and the style which was thus developed proved the equal to all its tasks。 Among other nations a conscious separation of this kind did not occur till a much later period。
The opinion of educated people as to the social value of language is fully set forth in the 'Cortigiano。' There were then persons； at the beginning of the sixteenth century； who purposely kept to the antiquated expressions of Dante and the other Tuscan writers of his time； simply because they were old。 Our author forbids the use of them altogether in speech； and is unwilling to permit them even in writing； which he considers a form of speech。 Upon this follows the admission that the best style of speech is that which most resembles good writing。 We can clearly recognize the author's feeling that people who have anything of importance to say must shape their own speech； and that language is something flexible and changing because it is something living。 It is allowable to make use of any expression； however ornate； as long as it is used by the people； nor are non…Tuscan words； or even French and Spanish words forbidden； if custom has once applied them to definite purposes。 Thus