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arities and works of art。
The players； apart from the professional performers； were either single amateurs； or whole orchestras of them； organized into a corporate Academy。 Many artists in other branches were at home in music； and often masters of the art。 People of position were averse to wind instruments； for the same reason which made them distasteful to Alcibiades and Pallas Athene。 In good society singing； either alone or accompanied with the violin； was usual； but quartettes of string instruments were also common； and the 'clavicembalo' was liked on account of its varied effects。 In singing； the solo only was permitted； 'for a single voice is heard； enjoyed； and judged far better。' In other words； as singing； notwithstanding all conventional modesty； is an exhibition of the individual man of society； it is better that each should be seen and heard separately。 The tender feelings produced in the fair listeners are taken for granted； and elderly people are therefore recommended to abstain from such forms of art； even though they excel in them。 It was held important that the effect of the song should be enhanced by the impression made on the sight。 We hear nothing； however； of the treatment in these circles of musical composition as an independent branch of art。 On the other hand it happened sometimes that the subject of the song was some terrible event which had befallen the singer himself。
This dilettantism； which pervaded the middle as well as the upper classes； was in Italy both more widespread and more genuinely artistic than in any other country of Europe。 Wherever we meet with a description of social intercourse； there music and singing are always and expressly mentioned。 Hundreds of portraits show us men and women； often several together； playing or holding some musical instrument； and the angelic concerts represented in the ecclesiastical pictures prove how familiar the painters were with the living effects of music。 We read of the lute…player Antonio Rota； at Padua （d。 1549）； who became a rich man by his lessons； and published a handbook to the practice of the lute。
At a time when there was no opera to concentrate and monopolize musical talent； this general cultivation of the art must have been something wonderfully varied； intelligent； and original。 It is another question how much we should find to satisfy us in these forms of music； could they now be reproduced for us。
Equality of Men and Women
To understand the higher forms of social intercourse at this period； we must keep before our minds the fact that women stood on a footing of perfect equality with men。 We must not suffer ourselves to be misled by the sophistical and often malicious talk about the assumed inferiority of the female sex； which we meet with now and then in the dialogues of this time； nor by such satires as the third of Ariosto； who treats woman as a dangerous grown…up child； whom a man must learn how to manage； in spite of the great gulf between them。 There is； indeed； a certain amount of truth in what he says。 Just because the educated woman was on a level with the man； that communion of mind and heart which comes from the sense of mutual dependance and completion； could not be developed in marriage at this time； as it has been developed later in the cultivated society of the North。
The education given to women in the upper classes was essentially the same as that given to men。 The Italian； at the time of the Renaissance； felt no scruple in putting sons and daughters alike under the same course of literary and even philological instruction。 Indeed； looking at this ancient culture as the chief treasure of life； he was glad that his girls should have a share in it。 We have seen what perfection was attained by the daughters of princely houses in writing and speaking Latin。 Many others must at least have been able to read it； in order to follow the conversation of the day； which turned largely on classical subjects。 An active interest was taken by many in Italian poetry； in which； whether prepared or improvised； a large number of Italian women； from the time of the Venetian Cassandra Fedele onwards （about the close of the fifteenth century）； made themselves famous。 One； indeed； Vittoria Colonna； may be called immortal。 If any proof were needed of the assertion made above； it would be found in the manly tone of this poetry。 Even the love…sonnets and religious poems are so precise and definite in their character； and so far removed from the tender twilight of sentiment； and from all the dilettantism which we commonly find in the poetry of women； that we should not hesitate to attribute them to male authors； if we had not clear external evidence to prove the contrary。
For； with education； the individuality of women in the upper classes was developed in the same way as that of men。 Till the time of the Reformation； the personality of women out of Italy； even of the highest rank； comes forward but little。 Exceptions like Isabella of Bavaria； Margaret of Anjou； and Isabella of Castile； are the forced result of very unusual circumstances。 In Italy； throughout the whole of the fifteenth century； the wives of the rulers； and still more those of the Condottieri； have nearly all a distinct； recognizable personality； and take their share of notoriety and glory。 To these came gradually to be added a crowd of famous women of the most varied kind； among them those whose distinction consisted in the fact that their beauty； disposition； education； virtue； and piety； combined to render them harmonious human beings。 There was no question of 'woman's rights' or female emancipation； simply because the thing itself was a matter of course。 The educated woman； no less than the man； strove naturally after a characteristic and complete individuality。 The same intellectual and emotional development which perfected the man； was demanded for the perfection of the woman。 Active literary world； nevertheless； was not expected from her； and if she were a poet； some powerful utterance of feeling； rather than the confidences of the novel or the diary； was looked for。 These women had no thought of the public； their function was to influence distinguished men； and to moderate male impulse and caprice。
The highest praise which could then be given to the great Italian women was that they had the mind and the courage of men。 We have only to observe the thoroughly manly bearing of most of the women in the heroic poems； especially those of Boiardo and Ariosto； to convince ourselves that we have before us the ideal of the time。 The title 'virago；' which is an equivocal compliment in the present day； then implied nothing but praise。 It was borne in all its glory by Caterina Sforza； wife and afterwards widow of Girolamo Riario； whose hereditary possession； Forli； she gallantly defended first against his murderers； and then against Cesare Borgia。 Though finally vanquished； she retained the admiration of her countrymen and the title 'prima donna d'Italia。' This heroic vein can be detected in many of the women of the Renaissance； though none found the same opportunity of showing their heroism to the world。 In Isabella Gonzaga this type is clearly recognizable。
Women of this stamp could listen to novels like those of Bandello； without social intercourse suffering from it。 The ruling genius of society was not； as now； womanhood； or the respect for certain presuppositions； mysteries； and susceptibilities； but the consciousness of energy； of beauty； and of a social state full of danger and opportunity。 And for this reason we find； side by side with the most measured and polished social forms； something our age would call immodesty； forgetting that by which it was corrected and counter… balanced the powerful characters of the women who were exposed to it。
That in all the dialogues and treatises together we can find no absolute evidence on these points is only natural； however freely the nature of love and the position and capacities of women were discussed。
What seems to have been wanting in this society were the young girls who； even when not brought up in the monasteries； were still carefully kept away from it。 It is not easy to say whether their absence was the cause of the greater freedom of conversation； or whether they were removed on account of it。
Even the intercourse with courtesans seems to have assumed a more elevated character； reminding us of the position of the Hetairae in classical Athens。 The famous Roman courtesan Imperia was a woman of intelligence and culture； had learned from a certain Domenico Campana the art of making sonnets； and was not without musical accomplishments。 The beautiful Isabella de Luna； of Spanish extraction； who was reckoned amusing company； seems to have been an odd compound of a kind heart with a shockingly foul tongue； which latter sometimes brought her into trouble。 At Milan； Bandello knew the majestic Caterina di San Celso； who played and sang and recited superbly。 It is clear from all we read on the subject that the distinguished people who visited these women； and from time to time lived with them； demand