按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
than are vague declarations against modern paganism。 And closer investigation often reveals to us that underneath this outward shell much genuine religion could still survive。
The fuller discussion of these points must be limited to a few of the more essential explanations。
That religion should again become an affair of the individual and of his own personal feeling was inevitable when the Church became corrupt in doctrine and tyrannous in practice； and is a proof that the European mind was still alive。 It is true that this showed itself in many different ways。 While the mystical and ascetical sects of the North lost no time in creating new outward forms for their new modes of thought and feeling； each individual in Italy went his own way； and thousands wandered on the sea of life without any religious guidance whatever。 All the more must we admire those who attained and held fast to a personal religion。 They were not to blame for being unable to have any part or lot in the old Church； as she then was； nor would it be reasonable to expect that they should all of them go through that mighty spiritual labor which was appointed to the German reformers。 The form and aim of this personal faith； as it showed itself in the better minds； will bc set forth at the close of our work。
The worldliness； through which the Renaissance seems to offer so striking a contrast to the Middle Ages； owed its first origin to the flood of new thoughts； purposes； and views； which transformed the mediaeval conception of nature and man。 The spirit is not in itself more hostile to religion than that 'culture' which now holds its place； but which can give us only a feeble notion of the universal ferment which the discovery of a new world of greatness then called forth。 This worldliness was not frivolous； but earnest； and was ennobled by art and poetry。 It is a lofty necessity of the modern spirit that this attitude； once gained； can never again be lost； that an irresistible impulse forces us to the investigation of men and things； and that we must hold this inquiry to be our proper end and work。 How soon and by what paths this search will lead us back to God； and in what ways the religious temper of the individual will be affected by it； are questions which cannot be met by any general answer。 The Middle Ages； which spared themselves the trouble of induction and free inquiry； can have no right to impose upon us their dogmatical verdict in a matter of such vast importance。
To the study of man； among many other causes； was due the tolerance and indifference with which the Mohammedan religion was regarded。 The knowledge and admiration of the remarkable civilization which Islam； particularly before the Mongol inundation； had attained； was peculiar to Italy from the time of the Crusades。 This sympathy was fostered by the half…Mohammedan government of some Italian princes； by dislike and even contempt for the existing Church； and by constant commercial intercourse with the harbors of the Eastern and Southern Mediterranean。 It can be shown that in the thirteenth century the Italians recognized a Mohammedan ideal of nobleness； dignity； and pride； which they loved to connect with the person of a Sultan。 A Mameluke Sultan is commonly meant； if any name is mentioned； it is the name of Saladin。 Even the Osmanli Turks； whose destructive tendencies were no secret； gave the Italians only half a fright； and a peaceable accord with them was looked upon as no impossibility。
The truest and most characteristic expression of this religious indifference is the famous story of the Three Rings； which Lessing has put into the mouth of his Nathan； after it had been already told centuries earlier； though with some reserve； in the 'Hundred Old Novels' （nov。 12 or 73）； and more boldly in Boccaccio （Decamerone； i； nov。 3）。 In what language and in what corner of the Mediterranean it was first told can never be known； most likely the original was much more plain…spoken than the two Italian adaptations。 The religious postulate on which it rests； namely Deism； will be discussed later on in its wider significance for this period。 The same idea is repeated； though in a clumsy caricature； in the famous proverb of the 'three who have deceived the world； that is； Moses； Christ； and Mohammed。' If the Emperor Frederick II； in whom this saying is said to have originated； really thought so； he probably expressed himself with more wit。
Ideas of the same kind were also current in Islam。 At the height of the Renaissance； towards the close of the fifteenth century； Luigi Pulci offers us an example of the same mode of thought in the 'Morgante Maggiore。' The imaginary world of which his story treats is divided； as in all heroic poems of romance； into a Christian and a Mohammedan camp。 In accordance with the medieval temper； the victory of the Christian and the final reconciliation among the combatants was attended by the baptism of the defeated Islamites； and the Improvisatori； who preceded Pulci in the treatment of these subjects； must have made free use of this stock incident。 It was Pulci's object to parody his predecessors； particularly the worst among them； and this he does by the invocations of God； Christ； and the Madonna； with which each canto begins； and still more clearly by the sudden conversions and baptisms； the utter senselessness of which must have struck every reader or hearer。 This ridicule leads him further to the confession of his faith in the relative goodness of all religions； which faith； notwithstanding his profession of orthodoxy； rests on an essentially theistic basis。 In another point； too； he departs widely from mediaeval conceptions。 The alternatives in past centuries were： Christian； or else Pagan and Mohammedan； orthodox believer or heretic。 Pulci draws a picture of the Giant Margutte who； disregarding each and every religion； jovially confesses to every form of vice and sensuality； and only reserves to himself the merit of having never broken faith。 Perhaps the poet intended to make something of thisin his wayhonest monster； possibly to have led him into virtuous paths by Morgante； but he soon got tired of his own creation； and in the next canto brought him to a comic end。 Margutte has been brought forward as a proof of Pulci's frivolity； but he is needed to complete the picture of the poetry of the fifteenth century。 It was natural that it should somewhere present in grotesque proportions the figure of an untamed egotism； insensible to all established rule； and yet with a remnant of honorable feeling left。 In other poems sentiments are put into the mouths of giants； fiends； infidels； and Mohammedans which no Christian knight would venture to utter。
Antiquity exercised an influence of another kind than that of Islam； and this not through its religion； which was but too much like the Catholicism of this period； but through its philosophy。 Ancient literature； now respected as something incomparable； is full of the victory of philosophy over religious tradition。 An endless number of systems and fragments of systems were suddenly presented to the Italian mind； not as curiosities or even as heresies； but almost with the authority of dogmas； which had now to be reconciled rather than discriminated。 In nearly all these various opinions and doctrines a certain kind of belief in God was implied； but taken altogether they formed a marked contrast to the Christian faith in a Divine government of the world。 And there was one central question； which mediaeval theology had striven in vain to solve； and which now urgently demanded an answer from the wisdom of the ancients； namely； the relation of Providence to the freedom or necessity of the human will。 To write the history of this question even superficially from the fourteenth century onwards； would require a whole volume。 A few hints must here suffice。
If we take Dante and his contemporaries as evidence； we shall find that ancient philosophy first came into contact with Italian life in the form which offered the most marked contrast to Christianity； that is to say； Epicureanism。 The writings of Epicurus were no longer preserved； and even at the close of the classical age a more or less one…sided conception had been formed of his philosophy。 Nevertheless； that phase of Epicureanism which can be studied in Lucretius； and especially in Cicero； is quite sufficient to make men familiar with a godless universe。 To what extent his teaching was actually understood； and whether the name of the problematic Greek sage was not rather a catchword for the multitude； it is hard to say。 It is probable that the Dominican Inquisition used it against men who could not be reached by a more definite accusation。 In the case of sceptics born before the time was ripe； whom it was yet hard to convict of positive heretical utterances； a moderate degree of luxurious living may have sufficed to provoke the charge。 The word is used in this conventional sense by Giovanni Villani； when he explains the Florentine fires of 1115 and 1117 as a Divine judgement on heresies； among others； 'on the luxurious and gluttonous sect of Epic