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ises of the artists and writers who made the fair princess a rich return for her patronage； her own letters show her to us as a woman of unshaken firmness； full of kindliness and humorous observation。 Bembo； Bandello； Ariosto； and Bernardo Tasso sent their works to this court； small and powerless as it was； and empty as they found its treasury。 A more polished and charming circle was not to be seen in Italy； since the dissolution （1508） of the old Court of Urbino； and in one respect； in freedom of movement； the society of Ferrara was inferior to that of Mantua。 In artistic matters Isabella had an accurate knowledge； and the catalogue of her small but choice collection can be read by no lover of art without emotion。
In the great Federigo （1444…1482）； whether he were a genuine Montefeltro or not； Urbino possessed a brilliant representative of the princely order。 As a Condottiere he shared the political morality of soldiers of fortune； a morality of which the fault does not rest with them alone； as ruler of his little territory he adopted the plan of spending at home the money he had earned abroad； and taxing his people as lightly as possible。 Of him and his two successors； Guidobaldo and Francesco Maria； we read： 'They erected buildings； furthered the cultivation of the land； lived at home； and gave employment to a large number of people： their subjects loved them。' But not only the State； but the court too； was a work of art and organization； and this in every sense of the word。 Federigo had 500 persons in his service； the arrangements of the court were as complete as in the capitals of the greatest monarchs； but nothing was built quarters sprang up at the bidding of the ruler： here； by the concentration of the official classes and the active promotion of trade； was formed for the first time a true capital； wealthy fugitives from all parts of Italy； Florentines especially； settled and built their palaces at Ferrara。 But the indirect taxation； at all events； must have reached a point at which it could only just be borne。 The Government； it is true； took measures of alleviation which were also adopted by other Italian despots； such as Galeazzo Maria Sforza： in time of famine； corn was brought from a distance and seems to have been distributed gratuitously； but in ordinary times it compensated itself by the monopoly； if not of corn； of many other of the necessaries of life fish； salt； meat； fruit and vegetables； which last were carefully planted on and ne ar the walls of the city。 The most considerable source of income； however； was the annual sale of public offices； a usage which was common throughout Italy； and about the working of which at Ferrara we have more precise information。 We read； for example； that at the new year 1502 the majority of the officials bought their places at 'prezzi salati' （pungent prices）； public servants of the most various kinds； custom…house officers； bailiffs （massari）； notaries； 'podesta；' judges； and even governors of provincial towns are quoted by name。 As one of the 'devourers of the people' who paid dearly for their places； and who were 'hated worse than the devil；' Tito Strozza let us hope not the famous Latin poet is mentioned。 About the same time every year the dukes were accustomed to make a round of visits in Ferrara； the so…called 'andar per ventura；' in which they took presents from； at any rate； the more wealthy citizens。 The gifts； however； did not consist of money； but of natural products。
It was the pride of the duke for all Italy to know that at Ferrara the soldiers received their pay and the professors at the University their salary not a day later than it was due； that the soldiers never dared lay arbitrary hands on citizen or peasant； that the town was impregnable to assault； and that vast sums of coined money were stored up in the citadel。 To keep two sets of accounts seemed unnecessary： the Minister of Finance was at the same time manager of the ducal household。 The buildings erected by Borso （1430…1471）； by Ercole I （till 1505）； and by Alfonso I （till 1534）； were very numerous； but of small size； they are characteristic of a princely house which； with all its love of splendor Borso never appeared but in embroidery and jewels indulged in no ill…considered expense。 Alfonso may perhaps have foreseen the fate which was in store for his charming little villas； the Belvedere with its shady gardens； and Montana with its fountains and beautiful frescoes。
It is undeniable that the dangers to which these princes were constantly exposed developed in them capacities of a remarkable kind。 In so artificial a world only a man of consummate address could hope to succeed； each candidate for distinction was forced to make good his claims by personal merit and show himself worthy of the crown he sought。 Their characters are not without dark sides； but in all of them lives something of those qualities which Italy then pursued as its ideal。 What European monarch of the time labored for his own culture as； for instance； Alfonso I？ His travels in France； England； and the Netherlands we re undertaken for the purpose of study： by means of them he gained an accurate knowledge of the industry and commerce of these countries。 It is ridiculous to reproach him with the turner's work which he practiced in his leisure hours； connected as it was with his skill in the casting of cannon； and with the unprejudiced freedom with which he surrounded himself by masters of every art。 The Italian princes were not； like their contemporaries in the North； dependent on the society of an aristocracy which held itself to be the only class worth consideration； and which infected the monarch with the same conceit。 In Italy the prince was permitted and compelled to know and to use men of every grade in society； and the nobility； though by birth a caste； were forced in social intercourse to stand up on their personal qualifications alone。 But this is a point which we shall discuss more fully in the sequel。 The feeling of the Ferrarese towards the ruling house was a strange compound of silent dread； of the truly Italian sense of well…calculated interest； and of the loyalty of the modern subject： personal admiration was transferred into a new sentiment of duty。 The city of Ferrara raised in 1451 a bronze equestrian statue to their Prince Niccolo； who had died ten years earlier； Borso （1454） did not scruple to place his own statue； also of bronze； but in a sitting posture； hard by in the market； in addition to which the city； at the beginning of his reign； decreed to him a 'marble triumphal pillar 。' A citizen who； when abroad in Venice； had spoken ill of Borso in public； was informed against on his return home； and condemned to banishment and the confiscation of his goods； a loyal subject was with difficulty restrained from cutting him down before the tribunal itself； and with a rope round his neck the offender went to the duke and begged for a full pardon。 The government was well provided with spies； and the duke inspected personally the daily list of travellers which the innkeepers were strictly ordered to present。 Under Borso； who was anxious to leave no distinguished stranger unhonored； this regulation served a hospitable purpose； Ercole I used it simply as a measure of precaution。 In Bologna； too； it was then the rule； under Giovanni II Bentivoglio； that every passing traveller who entered at one gate must obtain a ticket in order to go out at another。 An unfailing means of popularity was the sudden dismissal of oppressive officials。 When Borso arrested in person his chief and confidential counsellors； when Ercole I removed and disgraced a tax…gatherer who for years had been sucking the blood of the people； bonfires were lighted and the bells were pealed in their honour。 With one of his servants； however； Ercole let things go too far。 The director of the police； or by whatever name we should choose to call him （Capitano di Giustizia）； was Gregorio Zampante of Lucca； a native being unsuited for an office of this kind。 Even the sons and brothers of the duke trembled before this man； the fines he inflicted amounted to hundreds and thousands of ducats； and torture was applied even before the hearing of a case： bribes were accepted from wealthy criminals； and their pardon obtained from the duke by false representations。 Gladly would the people have paid any sum to their ruler for sending away the 'enemy of God and man。' But Ercole had knighted him and made him godfather to his children； and year by year Zampante laid by 2；000 ducats。 He dared only eat pigeons bred in his own house； and could not cross the street without a band of archers and bravos。 It was time to get rid of him； in 1496 two students； and a converted Jew whom he had mortally offended； killed him in his house while taking his siesta； and then rode through the town on horses held in waiting； raising the cry； 'Come out！ come out！ we have slain Zampante！' The pursuers came too late； and found them already safe across the frontier。 Of course it now rained satires some of them in the form of sonnets； others of odes。
It was wholly in th