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nning as a partisan of Savonarola； he became afterwards possessed with an enthusiasm for the ancient ideals of liberty； and for paganism in general； but when he was in prison his early friends regained the control of his mind； and secured for him what they considered a pious ending。 The tender witness and narrator of his last hours is one of the artistic family of the Della Robbia； the learned philologist Luca。 'Ah；' sighs Boscoli； 'get Brutus out of my head for me； that I may go my way as a Christian。' 'If you will；' answers Luca； 'the thing is not difficult； for you know that these deeds of the Romans are not handed down to us as they were； but idealized （con arte accresciute）。' The penitent now forces his understanding to believe； and bewails his inability to believe voluntarily。 If he could only live for a month with pious monks he would truly become spiritually minded。 It comes out that these partisans of Savonarola knew their Bible very imperfectly； Boscoli can only say the Paternoster and Ave Maria； and earnestly begs Luca to exhort his friends to study the sacred writings； for only what a man has learned in life does he possess in death。 Luca then reads and explains to him the story of the Passion according to the Gospel of St。 John； the poor listener； strange to say； can perceive clearly the Godhead of Christ； but is perplexed at His manhood； he wishes to get as firm a hold of it 'as if Christ came to meet him out of a wood。' His friend thereupon exhorts him to be humble； since this was only a doubt sent him by the Devil。 Soon after it occurs to the penitent that he has not fulfilled a vow made in his youth to go on pilgrimage to the Impruneta； his friend promises to do it in his stead。 Meantime the confessora monk； as was desired； from Savonarola's monastery arrives； and after giving him the explanation quoted above of the opinion of St。 Thomas Aquinas on tyrannicide； exhorts him to bear death manfully。 Boscoli makes answer： 'Father； waste no time on this； the philosophers have taught it me already； help me to bear death out of love to Christ。' What follows； the communion； the leave…taking and the executionis very touchingly described； one point deserves special mention。 When Boscoli laid his head on the block； he begged the executioner to delay the stroke for a moment： 'During the whole time since the announcement of the sentence he had been striving after a close union with God； without attaining it as he wished； and now in this supreme moment he thought that by a strong effort he could give himself wholly to God。' It is clearly some half…understood expression of Savonarola which was troubling him。
If we had more confessions of this character the spiritual picture of the time would be richer by many important features which no poem or treatise has preserved for us。 We should see more clearly how strong the inborn religious instinct was； how subjective and how variable the relation of the individual to religion； and what powerful enemies and competitors religion had。 That men whose inward condition is of this nature； are not the men to found a new church； is evident； but the history of the Western spirit would be imperfect without a view of that fermenting period among the Italians； while other nations； who have had no share in the evolution of thought； may be passed over without loss。 But we must return to the question of immortality。 If unbelief in this respect made such progress among the more highly cultivated natures； the reason lay partly in the fact that the great earthly task of discovering the world and representing it in word and form； absorbed most of the higher spiritual faculties。 We have already spoken of the inevitable worldliness of the Renaissance。 But this investigation and this art were necessarily accompanied by a general spirit of doubt and inquiry。 If this spirit shows itself but little in literature； if we find； for example； only isolated instances of the beginnings of biblical criticism； we are not therefore to infer that it had no existence。 The sound of it was only overpowered by the need of representation and creation in all departments that is； by the artistic instinct； and it was further checked； whenever it tried to express itself theoretically； by the already existing despotism of the Church。 This spirit of doubt must； for reasons too obvious to need discussion； have inevitably and chiefly busied itself with the question of the state of man after death。
And here came in the influence of antiquity； and worked in a twofold fashion on the argument。 In the first place men set themselves to master the psychology of the ancients； and tortured the letter of Aristotle for a decisive answer。 In one of the Lucianic dialogues of the time； Charon tells Mercury how he questioned Aristotle on his belief in immortality； when the philosopher crossed in the Stygian boat； but the prudent sage； although dead in the body and nevertheless living on； declined to compromise himself by a definite answerand centuries later how was it likely to fare with the interpretation of his writings？ All the more eagerly did men dispute about his opinion and that of others on the true nature of the soul； its origin； its pre…existence； its unity in all men； its absolute eternitY； even its transformations； and there were men who treated of these things in the pulpit。 The dispute was warmly carried on even in the fifteenth century； some proved that Aristotle taught the doctrine of an immortal soul； others complained of the hardness of men's hearts； who would not believe that there was a soul at all； till they saw it sitting down on a chair before them； Filelfo； in his funeral oration on Francesco Sforza； brings forward a long list of opinions of ancient and even of Arab philosophers in favour of immortality； and closes the mixture； which covers a folio page and a half of print； with the words； 'Besides all this we have the Old and New Testaments； which are above all truth。' Then came the Florentine Platonists with their master's doctrine of the soul； supplemented at times； as in the case of Pico； by Christian teaching。 But the opposite opinion prevailed in the instructed world。 At the beginning of the sixteenth century the stumbling…block which it put in the way of the Church was so serious that Leo X set forth a Constitution at the Lateran Council in 1513； in defence of the immortality and individuality of the soul； the latter against those who asserted that there was but one soul in all men。 A few years later appeared the work of Pomponazzo； in which the impossibility of a philosophical proof of immortality is maintained； and the contest was now waged incessantly with replies and 'apologies；' till it was silenced by the Catholic reaction。 The pre…existence of the soul in God； conceived more or less in accordance with Plato's theory of ideas； long remained a common belief； and proved of service even to the poets。 The consequences which followed from it as to the mode of the soul's continued existence after death were not more closely considered。
There was a second way in which the influence of antiquity made itself felt； chiefly by means of that remarkable fragment of the sixth book of Cicero's 'Republic；' known by the name of Scipio's Dream。 Without the commentary of Macrobius it would probably have perished like the rest of the second part of the work； it was now diffused in countless manuscript copies； and； after the discovery of typography； in a printed form and edited afresh by various commentatOrs。 It is the description of a transfigured hereafter for great men； pervaded by the harmony of the spheres。 This pagan heaven； for which many other testimonies were gradually extracted from the writings of the ancients； came step by step to supplant the Christian heaven in proportion as the ideal of fame and historical greatness threw into the shade the ideal of the Christian life； without； nevertheless； the public feeling being thereby offended as it was by the doctrine of personal annihilation after death。 Even Petrarch founds his hope chiefly on this Dream of Scipio； on the declarations found in other Ciceronian works； and on Plato's 'Phaedo；' without making any mention of the Bible。 'Why；' he asks elsewhere； 'should not I as a Catholic share a hope which was demonstrably cherished by the heathen？' Soon afterwards Coluccio Salutati wrote his 'Labors of Hercules' （still existing in manuscript）； in which it is proved at the end that the valorous man； who has well endured the great labors of earthly life； is justly entitled to a dwelling among the stars。 If Dante still firmly maintained that the great pagans； whom he would have gladly welcomed in Paradise； nevertheless must not come beyond the Limbo at the entrance to Hell； the poetry of a later time accepted joyfully the new liberal ideas of a future life。 Cosimo the Elder； according to Bernardo Pulci's poem on his death； was received in heaven by Cicero； who had also been called the 'father of his country；' by the Fabii； by Curius； Fabricius and many others； with them he would adorn the choir where only blameless spirits sing。
But in the old wr