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iced and his body bound within the pine； but now it was deemed sufficient for the maidens to sing their wild songs of lamentation； and for the priests and male enthusiasts to cut and gash themselves with knives； or to sacrifice （as they did） to the Earth…mother the precious blood offering of their virile organssymbols of fertility in return for the promised and expected renewal of Nature and the crops in the coming Spring。 For the ceremony； as we have already seen； did not end with death and lamentation； but led on； perfectly naturally； after a day or two to a festival of resurrection； when it was discovered just as in the case of Osiristhat the pine…tree coffin was empty； and the immortal life had flown。 How strange the similarity and parallelism of all these things to the story of Jesus in the Gospelsthe sacrifice of a life made in order to bring salvation to men and expiation of sins； the crowning of the victim； and arraying in royal attire； the scourging and the mockery； the binding or nailing to a tree； the tears of Mary； and the resurrection and the empty coffin！or how not at all strange when we consider in what numerous forms and among how many peoples； this same parable and ritual had as a matter of fact been celebrated； and how it had ultimately come down to bring its message of redemption into a somewhat obscure Syrian city； in the special shape with which we are familiar。
＇1＇ See Julius Firmicus； who says （De Errore； c。 28）： 〃in sacris Phrygiis； quae Matris deum dicunt； per annos singulos arbor pinea caeditur； et in media arbore simulacrum uvenis subligatur。 In Isiacis sacris de pinea arbore caeditur truncus； hujus trunci media pars subtiliter excavatur； illis de segminibus factum idolum Osiridis sepelitur。 In Prosperpinae sacris caesa arbor in effigiem virginis formaraque componitur； et cum intra civitatem fuerit illata； quadraginta noctibus pIangitur； quadragesima vero nocte comburitur。〃
Though the parable or legend in its special Christian form bears with it the consciousness of the presence of beings whom we may call gods； it is important to remember that in many or most of its earlier forms； though it dealt in 'spirits'the spirit of the corn； or the spirit of the Spring； or the spirits of the rain and the thunder； or the spirits of totem…animalsit had not yet quite risen to the idea of gods。 It had not risen to the conception of eternal deities sitting apart and governing the world in solemn conclaveas from the slopes of Olympus or the recesses of the Christian Heaven。 It belonged； in fact； in its inception； to the age of Magic。 The creed of Sin and Sacrifice； or of Guilt and Expiationwhatever we like to call itwas evolved perfectly naturally out of the human mind when brought face to face with Life and Nature） at some early stage of its self…consciousness。 It was essentially the result of man's deep； original and instinctive sense of solidarity with Nature； now denied and belied and to some degree broken up by the growth and conscious insistence of the self…regarding impulses。 It was the consciousness of disharmony and disunity； causing men to feel all the more poignantly the desire and the need of reconciliation。 It was a realization of union made clear by its very loss。 It assumed of course； in a subconscious way as I have already indicated； that the external world was the HABITAT of a mind or minds similar to man's own； but THAT being granted； it is evident that the particular theories current in this or that place about the nature of the worldthe theories； as we should say； of science or theologydid not alter the general outlines of the creed； they only colored its details and gave its ritual different dramatic settings。 The mental attitudes； for instance； of Abraham sacrificing the ram； or of the Siberian angakout slaughtering a totem…bear； or of a modern and pious Christian contemplating the Saviour on the Cross are really almost exactly the same。 I mention this because in tracing the origins or the evolution of religions it is important to distinguish clearly what is essential and universal from that which is merely local and temporary。 Some people； no doubt； would be shocked at the comparisons just made； but surely it is much more inspiriting and encouraging to think that whatever progress HAS been made in the religious outlook of the world has come about through the gradual mental growth and consent of the peoples； rather than through some unique and miraculous event of a rather arbitrary and unexplained characterwhich indeed might never be repeated； and concerning which it would perhaps be impious to suggest that it SHOULD be repeated。
The consciousness then of Sin （or of alienation from the life of the whole）； and of restoration or redemption through Sacrifice； seems to have disclosed itself in the human race in very far…back times； and to have symbolized itself in some most ancient rituals； and if we are shocked sometimes at the barbarities which accompanied those rituals； yet we must allow that these barbarities show how intensely the early people felt the solemnity and importance of the whole matter； and we must allow too that the barbarities did sear and burn themselves into rude and ignorant minds with the sense of the NEED of Sacrifice； and with a result perhaps which could not have been compassed in any other way。
For after all we see now that sacrifice is of the very essence of social life。 〃It is expedient that ONE man should die for the people〃； and not only that one man should actually die； but （what is far more important） that each man should be ready and WILLING to die in that cause； when the occasion and the need arises。 Taken in its larger meanings and implications Sacrifice； as conceived in the ancient world； was a perfectly reasonable thing。 It SHOULD pervade modern life more than it does。 All we have or enjoy flows from； or is implicated with； pain and suffering in others； andif there is any justice in Nature or Humanityit demands an equivalent readiness to suffer on our part。 If Christianity has any real essence； that essence is perhaps expressed in some such ritual or practice of Sacrifice； and we see that the dim beginnings of this idea date from the far…back customs of savages coming down from a time anterior to all recorded history。
VIII。 PAGAN INITIATIONS AND THE SECOND BIRTH
We have suggested in the last chapter how the conceptions of Sin and Sacrifice coming down to us from an extremely remote past； and embodied among the various peoples of the world sometimes in crude and bloodthirsty rites； sometimes in symbols and rituals of a gentler and more gracious character； descended at last into Christianity and became a part of its creed and of the creed of the modern world。 On the whole perhaps we may trace a slow amelioration in this process and may flatter ourselves that the Christian centuries exhibit a more philosophical understanding of what Sin is； and a more humane conception of what Sacrifice SHOULD be； than the centuries preceding。 But I fear tht any very decided statement or sweeping generalization to that effect would beto say the leastrash。 Perhaps there IS a very slow amelioration； but the briefest glance at the history of the Christian churchesthe horrible rancours and revenges of the clergy and the sects against each other in the fourth and fifth centuries A。D。； the heresy…hunting crusades at Beziers and other places and the massacres of the Albigenses in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries； the witch…findings and burnings of the sixteenth and seventeenth； the hideous science…urged and bishop…blessed warfare of the twentieth horrors fully as great as any we can charge to the account of the Aztecs or the Babyloniansmust give us pause。 Nor must we forget that if there is by chance a substantial amelioration in our modern outlook with regard to these matters the same had begun already before the advent of Christianity and can by no means be ascribed to any miraculous influence of that religion。 Abraham was prompted to slay a ram as a substitute for his son； long before the Christians were thought of； the rather savage Artemis of the old Greek rites was （according to Pausanias）＇1＇ honored by the yearly sacrifice of a perfect boy and girl； but later it was deemed sufficient to draw a knife across their throats as a symbol； with the result of spilling only a few drops of their blood； or to flog the boys （with the same result） upon her altar。 Among the Khonds in old days many victims （meriahs） were sacrificed to the gods； 〃but in time the man was replaced by a horse； the horse by a bull； the bull by a ram； the ram by a kid； the kid by fowls； and the fowls by many flowers。〃＇2＇ At one time； according to the Yajur…Veda； there was a festival at which one hundred and twenty…five victims； men and women； boys and girls； were sacrificed； 〃but reform supervened； and now the victims were bound as before to the stake； but afterwards amid litanies to the immolated （god） Narayana； the sacrificing priest brandished a knife and severed the bonds of the captives。〃＇3＇ At the Athenian festival of the Thargelia； to which I referred in the last chapter； it appears that the victims； in later times； instead of being slain； were tossed from a height into the sea； and after being r