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The Evolution of Theology： An Anthropological Study
by Thomas Henry Huxley
I conceive that the origin； the growth； the decline； and the
fall of those speculations respecting the existence； the powers；
and the dispositions of beings analogous to men； but more or
less devoid of corporeal qualities； which may be broadly
included under the head of theology； are phenomena the study of
which legitimately falls within the province of the
anthropologist。 And it is purely as a question of anthropology
（a department of biology to which； at various times； I have
given a good deal of attention） that I propose to treat of the
evolution of theology in the following pages。
With theology as a code of dogmas which are to be believed； or
at any rate repeated； under penalty of present or future
punishment； or as a storehouse of anaesthetics for those who
find the pains of life too hard to bear； I have nothing to do；
and； so far as it may be possible； I shall avoid the expression
of any opinion as to the objective truth or falsehood of the
systems of theological speculation of which I may find occasion
to speak。 From my present point of view； theology is regarded as
a natural product of the operations of the human mind； under the
conditions of its existence； just as any other branch of
science； or the arts of architecture； or music； or painting are
such products。 Like them； theology has a history。 Like them
also； it is to be met with in certain simple and rudimentary
forms； and these can be connected by a multitude of gradations；
which exist or have existed； among people of various ages and
races； with the most highly developed theologies of past and
present times。 It is not my object to interfere； even in the
slightest degree； with beliefs which anybody holds sacred； or to
alter the conviction of any one who is of opinion that； in
dealing with theology； we ought to be guided by considerations
different from those which would be thought appropriate if the
problem lay in the province of chemistry or of mineralogy。
And if people of these ways of thinking choose to read beyond
the present paragraph； the responsibility for meeting with
anything they may dislike rests with them and not with me。
We are all likely to be more familiar with the theological
history of the Israelites than with that of any other nation。
We may therefore fitly make it the first object of our studies；
and it will be convenient to commence with that period which
lies between the invasion of Canaan and the early days of the
monarchy； and answers to the eleventh and twelfth centuries B。C。
or thereabouts。 The evidence on which any conclusion as to the
nature of Israelitic theology in those days must be based is
wholly contained in the Hebrew Scripturesan agglomeration of
documents which certainly belong to very different ages； but of
the exact dates and authorship of any one of which （except
perhaps a few of the prophetical writings） there is no evidence；
either internal or external； so far as I can discover； of such a
nature as to justify more than a confession of ignorance； or； at
most； an approximate conclusion。 In this venerable record of
ancient life； miscalled a book； when it is really a library
comparable to a selection of works from English literature
between the times of Beda and those of Milton； we have the
stratified deposits （often confused and even with their natural
order inverted） left by the stream of the intellectual and moral
life of Israel during many centuries。 And； embedded in these
strata； there are numerous remains of forms of thought which
once lived； and which； though often unfortunately mere
fragments； are of priceless value to the anthropologist。
Our task is to rescue these from their relatively unimportant
surroundings； and by careful comparison with existing forms of
theology to make the dead world which they record live again。
In other words； our problem is palaeontological； and the method
pursued must be the same as that employed in dealing with other
fossil remains。
Among the richest of the fossiliferous strata to which I have
alluded are the books of Judges and Samuel。 It has often been
observed that these writings stand out； in marked relief from
those which precede and follow them； in virtue of a certain
archaic freshness and of a greater freedom from traces of late
interpolation and editorial trimming。 Jephthah； Gideon and
Samson are men of old heroic stamp； who would look as much in
place in a Norse Saga as where they are； and if the varnish…
brush of later respectability has passed over these memoirs of
the mighty men of a wild age； here and there； it has not
succeeded in effacing； or even in seriously obscuring； the
essential characteristics of the theology traditionally ascribed
to their epoch。
There is nothing that I have met with in the results of Biblical
criticism inconsistent with the conviction that these books give
us a fairly trustworthy account of Israelitic life and thought
in the times which they cover； and； as such； apart from the
great literary merit of many of their episodes； they possess the
interest of being； perhaps； the oldest genuine history； as apart
from mere chronicles on the one hand and mere legends on the
other； at present accessible to us。
But it is often said with exultation by writers of one party；
and often admitted； more or less unwillingly； by their
opponents； that these books are untrustworthy； by reason of
being full of obviously unhistoric tales。 And； as a notable
example； the narrative of Saul's visit to the so…called 〃witch
of Endor〃 is often cited。 As I have already intimated； I have
nothing to do with theological partisanship； either heterodox or
orthodox； nor； for my present purpose； does it matter very much
whether the story is historically true； or whether it merely
shows what the writer believed； but； looking at the matter
solely from the point of view of an anthropologist； I beg leave
to express the opinion that the account of Saul's necromantic
expedition is quite consistent with probability。 That is to say；
I see no reason whatever to doubt； firstly； that Saul made such
a visit； and； secondly； that he and all who were present；
including the wise woman of Endor herself； would have given；
with entire sincerity； very much the same account of the
business as that which we now read in the twenty…eighth chapter
of the first book of Samuel； and I am further of opinion that
this story is one of the most important of those fossils； to
which I have referred； in the material which it offers for the
reconstruction of the theology of the time。 Let us therefore
study it attentivelynot merely as a narrative which； in the
dramatic force of its gruesome simplicity； is not surpassed； if
it is equalled； by the witch scenes in Macbethbut as a piece
of evidence bearing on an important anthropological problem。
We are told （1 Sam。 xxviii。） that Saul； encamped at Gilboa；
became alarmed by the strength of the Philistine army gathered
at Shunem。 He therefore 〃inquired of Jahveh；〃 but 〃Jahveh
answered him not； neither by dreams； nor by Urim； nor
by prophets。〃 Thus deserted by Jahveh； Saul； in his
extremity； bethought him of 〃those that had familiar spirits；
and the wizards；〃 whom he is said； at some previous time； to
have 〃put out of the land〃； but who seem； nevertheless； to have
been very imperfectly banished； since Saul's servants； in answer
to his command to seek him a woman 〃that hath a familiar
spirit；〃 reply without a sign of hesitation or of fear； 〃Behold；
there is a woman that hath a familiar spirit at Endor〃； just as；
in some parts of England； a countryman might tell any one who
did not look like a magistrate or a policeman； where a 〃wise
woman〃 was to be met with。 Saul goes to this woman； who； after
being assured of immunity； asks； 〃Whom shall I bring up to
thee？〃 whereupon Saul says； 〃Bring me up Samuel。〃 The woman
immediately sees an apparition。 But to Saul nothing is visible；
for he asks； 〃What seest thou？〃 And the woman replies； 〃I see
Elohim coming up out of the earth。〃 Still the spectre remains
invisible to Saul； for he asks； 〃What form is he of？〃 And she
replies； 〃An old man cometh up； and he is covered with a robe。〃
So far； therefore； the wise woman unquestionably plays the part
of a 〃medium；〃 and Saul is dependent upon her version of
what happens。
The account continues：
And Saul perceived that it was Samuel； and he bowed with
his face to the ground and did obeisance。 And Samuel said to
Saul； Why hast thou disquieted me to bring me up？ And Saul
answered； I am sore distressed： for the Philistines make war
against me； and Elohim is departed from me and answereth me no
more； neither by prophets nor by dreams； therefore I have called
thee that thou mayest make known unto me what I shall do。
And Samuel said； Wherefore then d