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a view of opposing the Christians than of pleasing God： for after the first
destruction of the city； when they were led captive to Babylon； not being
then； so far as I am aware； split up into sects； they straightway neglected
their rites； bid farewell to the Mosaic law； buried their national customs
in oblivion as being plainly superfluous； and began to mingle with other
nations； as we may abundantly learn from Ezra and Nehemiah。 （28） We cannot；
therefore； doubt that they were no more bound by the law of Moses； after the
destruction of their kingdom； than they had been before it had been begun；
while they were still living among other peoples before the exodus from
Egypt； and were subject to no special law beyond the natural law； and also；
doubtless； the law of the state in which they were living； in so far as it
was consonant with the Divine natural law。
（29） As to the fact that the patriarchs offered sacrifices； I think they did
so for the purpose of stimulating their piety； for their minds had been
accustomed from childhood to the idea of sacrifice； which we know had been
universal from the time of Enoch； and thus they found in sacrifice their
most powerful incentive。 （30） The patriarchs； then； did not sacrifice to God
at the bidding of a Divine right； or as taught by the basis of the Divine
law； but simply in accordance with the custom of the time； and； if in so
doing they followed any ordinance； it was simply the ordinance of the
country they were living in； by which （as we have seen before in the case of
Melchisedek） they were bound。
（31） I think that I have now given Scriptural authority for my view： it
remains to show why and how the ceremonial observances tended to preserve
and confirm the Hebrew kingdom； and this I can very briefly do on grounds
universally accepted。
（32） The formation of society serves not only for defensive purposes； but is
also very useful； and； indeed； absolutely necessary； as rendering possible
the division of labour。 （33） If men did not render mutual assistance to each
other； no one would have either the skill or the time to provide for his own
sustenance and preservation： for all men are not equally apt for all work；
and no one would be capable of preparing all that he individually stood in
need of。 （34） Strength and time； I repeat； would fail； if every one had in
person to plough； to sow； to reap； to grind corn； to cook； to weave； to
stitch； and perform the other numerous functions required to keep life
going； to say nothing of the arts and sciences which are also entirely
necessary to the perfection and blessedness of human nature。 （35） We see
that peoples living； in uncivilized barbarism lead a wretched and almost
animal life； and even they would not be able to acquire their few rude
necessaries without assisting one another to a certain extent。
（36） Now if men were so constituted by nature that they desired nothing but
what is designated by true reason； society would obviously have no need of
laws： it would be sufficient to inculcate true moral doctrines； and men
would freely； without hesitation； act in accordance with their true
interests。 （37） But human nature is framed in a different fashion： every
one； indeed； seeks his own interest； but does not do so in accordance with
the dictates of sound reason； for most men's ideas of desirability and
usefulness are guided by their fleshly instincts and emotions； which take no
thought beyond the present and the immediate object。 （38） Therefore； no
society can exist without government； and force； and laws to restrain and
repress men's desires and immoderate impulses。 （39） Still human nature will
not submit to absolute repression。 （40） Violent governments； as Seneca says；
never last long； the moderate governments endure。 （41） So long as men act
simply from fear they act contrary to their inclinations； taking no thought
for the advantages or necessity of their actions； but simply endeavouring to
escape punishment or loss of life。 （42） They must needs rejoice in any evil
which befalls their ruler； even if it should involve themselves； and must
long for and bring about such evil by every means in their power。 （43）
Again； men are especially intolerant of serving and being ruled by their
equals。 （44） Lastly； it is exceedingly difficult to revoke liberties once
granted。
（45） From these considerations it follows； firstly； that authority should
either be vested in the hands of the whole state in common； so that everyone
should be bound to serve； and yet not be in subjection to his equals； or
else； if power be in the hands of a few； or one man； that one man should be
something above average humanity； or should strive to get himself accepted
as such。 （46） Secondly； laws should in every government be so arranged that
people should be kept in bounds by the hope of some greatly desired good；
rather than by fear； for then everyone will do his duty willingly。
（47） Lastly； as obedience consists in acting at the bidding of external
authority； it would have no place in a state where the government is vested
in the whole people； and where laws are made by common consent。 （48） In such
a society the people would remain free； whether the laws were added to or
diminished； inasmuch as it would not be done on external authority； but
their own free consent。 （49） The reverse happens when the sovereign power is
vested in one man； for all act at his bidding； and； therefore； unless they
had been trained from the first to depend on the words of their ruler； the
latter would find it difficult； in case of need； to abrogate liberties once
conceded； and impose new laws。
（50） From these universal considerations； let us pass on to the kingdom of
the Jews。 （51） The Jews when they first came out of Egypt were not bound by
any national laws； and were therefore free to ratify any laws they liked； or
to make new ones； and were at liberty to set up a government and occupy a
territory wherever they chose。 （52） However； they； were entirely unfit
to frame a wise code of laws and to keep the sovereign power vested in the
community； they were all uncultivated and sunk in a wretched slavery；
therefore the sovereignty was bound to remain vested in the hands of one man
who would rule the rest and keep them under constraint； make laws and
interpret them。 （53） This sovereignty was easily retained by Moses；
because he surpassed the rest in virtue and persuaded the people of the
fact； proving it by many testimonies （see Exod。 chap。 xiv。； last verse； and
chap。 xix：9）。 （54） He then； by the Divine virtue he possessed； made laws and
ordained them for the people； taking the greatest care that they should be
obeyed willingly and not through fear； being specially induced to adopt this
course by the obstinate nature of the Jews； who would not have submitted to
be ruled solely by constraint； and also by the imminence of war； for it is
always better to inspire soldiers with a thirst for glory than to terrify
them with threats； each man will then strive to distinguish himself
by valour and courage； instead of merely trying to escape punishment。 （55）
Moses； therefore； by his virtue and the Divine command； introduced a
religion； so that the people might do their duty from devotion rather than
fear。 （56） Further； he bound them over by benefits； and prophesied
many advantages in the future； nor were his laws very severe； as anyone may
see for himself； especially if he remarks the number of circumstances
necessary in order to procure the conviction of an accused person。
（57） Lastly； in order that the people which could not govern itself should
be entirely dependent on its ruler； he left nothing to the free choice of
individuals （who had hitherto been slaves）； the people could do nothing but
remember the law； and follow the ordinances laid down at the good pleasure
of their ruler； they were not allowed to plough； to sow； to reap； nor even
to eat； to clothe themselves； to shave； to rejoice； or in fact to do
anything whatever as they liked； but were bound to follow the directions
given in the law； and not only this； but they were obliged to have marks on
their door…posts； on their hands； and between their eyes to admonish them to
perpetual obedience。
（58） This； then； was the object of the ceremonial law； that men should do
nothing of their own free will； but should always act under external
authority； and should continually confess by their actions and thoughts that
they were not their own masters； but were entirely under the control of
others。
（59） From all these considerations it is clearer than day that ceremonies
have nothing to do with a state of blessedness； and that thos