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same in all those different states。 I shall； in the third place；
endeavour to explain all the different circumstances which
regulate this proportion。
In the fourth and last place； I shall endeavour to show what
are the circumstances which regulate the rent of land； and which
either raise or lower the real price of all the different
substances which it produces。
CHAPTER VIII
Of the Wages of Labour
THE produce of labour constitutes the natural recompense or
wages of labour。
In that original state of things； which precedes both the
appropriation of land and the accumulation of stock； the whole
produce of labour belongs to the labourer。 He has neither
landlord nor master to share with him。
Had this state continued； the wages of labour would have
augmented with all those improvements in its productive powers to
which the division of labour gives occasion。 All things would
gradually have become cheaper。 They would have been produced by a
smaller quantity of labour； and as the commodities produced by
equal quantities of labour would naturally in this state of
things be exchanged for one another； they would have been
purchased likewise with the produce of a smaller quantity。
But though all things would have become cheaper in reality；
in appearance many things might have become dearer than before；
or have been exchanged for a greater quantity of other goods。 Let
us suppose； for example； that in the greater part of employments
the productive powers of labour had been improved to ten fold； or
that a day's labour could produce ten times the quantity of work
which it had done originally； but that in a particular employment
they had been improved； only to double； or that a day's labour
could produce only twice the quantity of work which it had done
before。 In exchanging the produce of a day's labour in the
greater part of employments for that of a day's labour in this
particular one； ten times the original quantity of work in them
would purchase only twice the original quantity in it。 Any
particular quantity in it； therefore； a pound weight； for
example； would appear to be five times dearer than before。 In
reality； however； it would be twice as cheap。 Though it required
five times the quantity of other goods to purchase it； it would
require only half the quantity of labour either to purchase or to
produce it。 The acquisition； therefore； would be twice as easy as
before。
But this original state of things； in which the labourer
enjoyed the whole produce of his own labour； could not last
beyond the first introduction of the appropriation of land and
the accumulation of stock。 It was at an end； therefore； long
before the most considerable improvements were made in the
productive powers of labour； and it would be to no purpose to
trace further what might have been its effects upon the
recompense or wages of labour。
As soon as land becomes private property； the landlord
demands a share of almost all the produce which the labourer can
either raise； or collect from it。 His rent makes the first
deduction from the produce of the labour which is employed upon
land。
It seldom happens that the person who tills the ground has
wherewithal to maintain himself till he reaps the harvest。 His
maintenance is generally advanced to him from the stock of a
master； the farmer who employs him； and who would have no
interest to employ him； unless he was to share in the produce of
his labour； or unless his stock was to be replaced to him with a
profit。 This profit； makes a second deduction from the produce of
the labour which is employed upon land。
The produce of almost all other labour is liable to the like
deduction of profit。 In all arts and manufactures the greater
part of the workmen stand in need of a master to advance them the
materials of their work； and their wages and maintenance till it
be completed。 He shares in the produce of their labour； or in the
value which it adds to the materials upon which it is bestowed；
and in this share consists his profit。
It sometimes happens； indeed； that a single independent
workman has stock sufficient both to purchase the materials of
his work； and to maintain himself till it be completed。 He is
both master and workman； and enjoys the whole produce of his own
labour； or the whole value which it adds to the materials upon
which it is bestowed。 It includes what are usually two distinct
revenues； belonging to two distinct persons； the profits of
stock； and the wages of labour。
Such cases； however； are not very frequent； and in every
part of Europe； twenty workmen serve under a master for one that
is independent； and the wages of labour are everywhere understood
to be； what they usually are； when the labourer is one person；
and the owner of the stock which employs him another。
What are the common wages of labour； depends everywhere upon
the contract usually made between those two parties； whose
interests are by no means the same。 The workmen desire to get as
much； the masters to give as little as possible。 The former are
disposed to combine in order to raise； the latter in order to
lower the wages of labour。
It is not； however； difficult to foresee which of the two
parties must； upon all ordinary occasions； have the advantage in
the dispute； and force the other into a compliance with their
terms。 The masters； being fewer in number； can combine much more
easily； and the law； besides； authorizes； or at least does not
prohibit their combinations； while it prohibits those of the
workmen。 We have no acts of parliament against combining to lower
the price of work； but many against combining to raise it。 In all
such disputes the masters can hold out much longer。 A landlord； a
farmer； a master manufacturer； a merchant； though they did not
employ a single workman； could generally live a year or two upon
the stocks which they have already acquired。 Many workmen could
not subsist a week； few could subsist a month； and scarce any a
year without employment。 In the long run the workman may be as
necessary to his master as his master is to him； but the
necessity is not so immediate。
We rarely hear； it has been said； of the combinations of
masters； though frequently of those of workmen。 But whoever
imagines； upon this account； that masters rarely combine； is as
ignorant of the world as of the subject。 Masters are always and
everywhere in a sort of tacit； but constant and uniform
combination； not to raise the wages of labour above their actual
rate。 To violate this combination is everywhere a most unpopular
action； and a sort of reproach to a master among his neighbours
and equals。 We seldom； indeed； hear of this combination； because
it is the usual； and one may say； the natural state of things；
which nobody ever hears of。 Masters； too； sometimes enter into
particular combinations to sink the wages of labour even below
this rate。 These are always conducted with the utmost silence and
secrecy； till the moment of execution； and when the workmen
yield； as they sometimes do； without resistance； though severely
felt by them； they are never heard of by other people。 Such
combinations； however； are frequently resisted by a contrary
defensive combination of the workmen； who sometimes too； without
any provocation of this kind； combine of their own accord to
raise the price of their labour。 Their usual pretences are；
sometimes the high price of provisions； sometimes the great
profit which their masters make by their work。 But whether their
combinations be offensive or defensive； they are always
abundantly heard of。 In order to bring the point to a speedy
decision； they have always recourse to the loudest clamour； and
sometimes to the most shocking violence and outrage。 They are
desperate； and act with the folly and extravagance of desperate
men； who must either starve； or frighten their masters into an
immediate compliance with their demands。 The masters upon these
occasions are just as clamorous upon the other side； and never
cease to call aloud for the assistance of the civil magistrate；
and the rigorous execution of those laws which have been enacted
with so much severity against the combinations of servants；
labourers； and journeymen。 The workmen； accordingly； very seldom
derive any advantage from the violence of those tumultuous
combinations； which； partly from the interposition of the civil
magistrate； partly from the necessity superior steadiness of the
masters； partly from the necessity which the greater part of the
workmen are under of submitting for the sake of present
subsistence； generally end in nothing； but the punishment or ruin
of the ringleaders。
But though in disputes with their workmen； masters must
generally have the advantage； there is； however； a certain rate
be