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The improvements in agriculture and manufactures seem
likewise to have been of very great antiquity in the provinces of
Bengal； in the East Indies； and in some of the eastern provinces
of China； though the great extent of this antiquity is not
authenticated by any histories of whose authority we； in this
part of the world； are well assured。 In Bengal the Ganges and
several other great rivers form a great number of navigable
canals in the same manner as the Nile does in Egypt。 In the
Eastern provinces of China too； several great rivers form； by
their different branches； a multitude of canals； and by
communicating with one another afford an inland navigation much
more extensive than that either of the Nile or the Ganges； or
perhaps than both of them put together。 It is remarkable that
neither the ancient Egyptians； nor the Indians； nor the Chinese；
encouraged foreign commerce； but seem all to have derived their
great opulence from this inland navigation。
All the inland parts of Africa； and all that part of Asia
which lies any considerable way north of the Euxine and Caspian
seas； the ancient Scythia； the modern Tartary and Siberia； seem
in all ages of the world to have been in the same barbarous and
uncivilised state in which we find them at present。 The Sea of
Tartary is the frozen ocean which admits of no navigation； and
though some of the greatest rivers in the world run through that
country； they are at too great a distance from one another to
carry commerce and communication through the greater part of it。
There are in Africa none of those great inlets； such as the
Baltic and Adriatic seas in Europe； the Mediterranean and Euxine
seas in both Europe and Asia； and the gulfs of Arabia； Persia；
India； Bengal； and Siam； in Asia； to carry maritime commerce into
the interior parts of that great continent： and the great rivers
of Africa are at too great a distance from one another to give
occasion to any considerable inland navigation。 The commerce
besides which any nation can carry on by means of a river which
does not break itself into any great number of branches or
canals； and which runs into another territory before it reaches
the sea； can never be very considerable； because it is always in
the power of the nations who possess that other territory to
obstruct the communication between the upper country and the sea。
The navigation of the Danube is of very little use to the
different states of Bavaria； Austria and Hungary； in comparison
of what it would be if any of them possessed the whole of its
course till it falls into the Black Sea。
CHAPTER IV
Of the Origin and Use of Money
WHEN the division of labour has been once thoroughly
established； it is but a very small part of a man's wants which
the produce of his own labour can supply。 He supplies the far
greater part of them by exchanging that surplus part of the
produce of his own labour； which is over and above his own
consumption； for such parts of the produce of other men's labour
as he has occasion for。 Every man thus lives by exchanging； or
becomes in some measure a merchant； and the society itself grows
to be what is properly a commercial society。
But when the division of labour first began to take place；
this power of exchanging must frequently have been very much
clogged and embarrassed in its operations。 One man； we shall
suppose； has more of a certain commodity than he himself has
occasion for； while another has less。 The former consequently
would be glad to dispose of； and the latter to purchase； a part
of this superfluity。 But if this latter should chance to have
nothing that the former stands in need of； no exchange can be
made between them。 The butcher has more meat in his shop than he
himself can consume； and the brewer and the baker would each of
them be willing to purchase a part of it。 But they have nothing
to offer in exchange； except the different productions of their
respective trades； and the butcher is already provided with all
the bread and beer which he has immediate occasion for。 No
exchange can； in this case； be made between them。 He cannot be
their merchant； nor they his customers； and they are all of them
thus mutually less serviceable to one another。 In order to avoid
the inconveniency of such situations； every prudent man in every
period of society； after the first establishment of the division
of labour； must naturally have endeavoured to manage his affairs
in such a manner as to have at alltimes by him； besides the
peculiar produce of his own industry； a certain quantity of some
one commodity or other； such as he imagined few people would be
likely to refuse in exchange for the produce of their industry。
Many different commodities； it is probable； were
successively both thought of and employed for this purpose。 In
the rude ages of society； cattle are said to have been the common
instrument of commerce； and； though they must have been a most
inconvenient one； yet in old times we find things were frequently
valued according to the number of cattle which had been given in
exchange for them。 The armour of Diomede； says Homer； cost only
nine oxen； but that of Glaucus cost an hundred oxen。 Salt is said
to be the common instrument of commerce and exchanges in
Abyssinia； a species of shells in some parts of the coast of
India； dried cod at Newfoundland； tobacco in Virginia； sugar in
some of our West India colonies； hides or dressed leather in some
other countries； and there is at this day a village in Scotland
where it is not uncommon； I am told； for a workman to carry nails
instead of money to the baker's shop or the alehouse。
In all countries； however； men seem at last to have been
determined by irresistible reasons to give the preference； for
this employment； to metals above every other commodity。 Metals
can not only be kept with as little loss as any other commodity；
scarce anything being less perishable than they are； but they can
likewise； without any loss； be divided into any number of parts；
as by fusion those parts can easily be reunited again； a quality
which no other equally durable commodities possess； and which
more than any other quality renders them fit to be the
instruments of commerce and circulation。 The man who wanted to
buy salt； for example； and had nothing but cattle to give in
exchange for it； must have been obliged to buy salt to the value
of a whole ox； or a whole sheep at a time。 He could seldom buy
less than this； because what he was to give for it could seldom
be divided without loss； and if he had a mind to buy more； he
must； for the same reasons； have been obliged to buy double or
triple the quantity； the value； to wit； of two or three oxen； or
of two or three sheep。 If； on the contrary； instead of sheep or
oxen； he had metals to give in exchange for it； he could easily
proportion the quantity of the metal to the precise quantity of
the commodity which he had immediate occasion for。
Different metals have been made use of by different nations
for this purpose。 Iron was the common instrument of commerce
among the ancient Spartans； copper among the ancient Romans； and
gold and silver among all rich and commercial nations。
Those metals seem originally to have been made use of for
this purpose in rude bars； without any stamp or coinage。 Thus we
are told by Pliny； upon the authority of Timaeus； an ancient
historian； that； till the time of Servius Tullius； the Romans had
no coined money； but made use of unstamped bars of copper； to
purchase whatever they had occasion for。 These bars； therefore；
performed at this time the function of money。
The use of metals in this rude state was attended with two
very considerable inconveniencies； first； with the trouble of
weighing； and； secondly； with that of assaying them。 In the
precious metals； where a small difference in the quantity makes a
great difference in the value； even the business of weighing；
with proper exactness； requires at least very accurate weights
and scales。 The weighing of gold in particular is an operation of
some nicety。 In the coarser metals； indeed； where a small error
would be of little consequence； less accuracy would； no doubt； be
necessary。 Yet we should find it excessively troublesome； if
every time a poor man had occasion either to buy or sell a
farthing's worth of goods； he was obliged to weigh the farthing。
The operation of assaying is still more difficult； still more
tedious； and； unless a part of the metal is fairly melted in the
crucible； with proper dissolvents； any conclusion that can be
drawn from it； is extremely uncertain。 Before the institution of
coined money； however； unless they went through this tedious and
difficult operation； people must always have been liable to the
grossest frauds and impositions； and instead of a pound weight of