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and to introduce Greek civilization； but was prevented by his war with
the Parthians from at all improving this vilest of nations； for at
this time the revolt of Arsaces had taken place。 The Macedonian
power was now weak； while the Parthian had not yet reached its full
strength； and； as the Romans were still far off； the Jews chose
kings for themselves。 Expelled by the fickle populace； and regaining
their throne by force of arms； these princes； while they ventured on
the wholesale banishment of their subjects； on the destruction of
cities； on the murder of brothers； wives； and parents； and the other
usual atrocities of despots； fostered the national superstition by
appropriating the dignity of the priesthood as the support of their
political power。
Cneius Pompeius was the first of our countrymen to subdue the
Jews。 Availing himself of the right of conquest； he entered the
temple。 Thus it became commonly known that the place stood empty
with no similitude of gods within； and that the shrine had nothing
to reveal。 The walls of Jerusalem were destroyed； the temple was
left standing。 After these provinces had fallen； in the course of
our civil wars； into the hands of Marcus Antonius； Pacorus； king of
the Parthians； seized Judaea。 He was slain by Publius Ventidius； and
the Parthians were driven back over the Euphrates。 Caius Sosius
reduced the Jews to subjection。 The royal power； which had been
bestowed by Antony on Herod； was augmented by the victorious Augustus。
On Herod's death； one Simon； without waiting for the approbation of
the Emperor； usurped the title of king。 He was punished by
Quintilius Varus then governor of Syria； and the nation； with its
liberties curtailed； was divided into three provinces under the sons
of Herod。 Under Tiberius all was quiet。 But when the Jews were ordered
by Caligula to set up his statue in the temple； they preferred the
alternative of war。 The death of the Emperor put an end to the
disturbance。 The kings were either dead； or reduced to insignificance；
when Claudius entrusted the province of Judaea to the Roman Knights or
to his own freedmen； one of whom； Antonius Felix； indulging in every
kind of barbarity and lust； exercised the power of a king in the
spirit of a slave。 He had married Drusilla； the granddaughter of
Antony and Cleopatra； and so was the grandson…in…law； as Claudius
was the grandson； of Antony。
Yet the endurance of the Jews lasted till Gessius Florus was
procurator。 In his time the war broke out。 Cestius Gallus； legate of
Syria； who attempted to crush it； had to fight several battles；
generally with ill…success。 Cestius dying； either in the course of
nature； or from vexation； Vespasian was sent by Nero； and by help of
his good fortune； his high reputation； and his excellent subordinates；
succeeded within the space of two summers in occupying with his
victorious army the whole of the level country and all the cities；
except Jerusalem。 The following year had been wholly taken up with
civil strife； and had passed； as far as the Jews were concerned； in
inaction。 Peace having been established in Italy； foreign affairs were
once more remembered。 Our indignation was heightened by the
circumstance that the Jews alone had not submitted。 At the same time
it was held to be more expedient； in reference to the possible results
and contingencies of the new reign； that Titus should remain with
the army。
Accordingly he pitched his camp； as I have related； before the walls
of Jerusalem； and displayed his legions in order of battle。
The Jews formed their line close under their walls； whence； if
successful； they might venture to advance； and where； if repulsed；
they had a refuge at hand。 The cavalry with some light infantry was
sent to attack them； and fought without any decisive result。 Shortly
afterwards the enemy retreated。 During the following days they
fought a series of engagements in front of the gates； till they were
driven within the walls by continual defeats。 The Romans then began to
prepare for an assault。 It seemed beneath them to await the result
of famine。 The army demanded the more perilous alternative； some
prompted by courage； many by sheer ferocity and greed of gain。 Titus
himself had Rome with all its wealth and pleasures before his eyes。
Jerusalem must fall at once； or it would delay his enjoyment of
them。 But the commanding situation of the city had been strengthened
by enormous works which would have been a thorough defence even for
level ground。 Two hills of great height were fenced in by walls
which had been skilfully obliqued or bent inwards； in such a manner
that the flank of an assailant was exposed to missiles。 The rock
terminated in a precipice； the towers were raised to a height of sixty
feet； where the hill lent its aid to the fortifications； where the
ground fell； to a height of one hundred and twenty。 They had a
marvellous appearance； and to a distant spectator seemed to be of
uniform elevation。 Within were other walls surrounding the palace；
and； rising to a conspicuous height； the tower Antonia； so called by
Herod； in honour of Marcus Antonius。
The temple resembled a citadel； and had its own walls； which were
more laboriously constructed than the others。 Even the colonnades with
which it was surrounded formed an admirable outwork。 It contained an
inexhaustible spring； there were subterranean excavations in the hill；
and tanks and cisterns for holding rain water。 The founders of the
state had foreseen that frequent wars would result from the
singularity of its customs； and so had made every provision against
the most protracted siege。 After the capture of their city by
Pompey； experience and apprehension taught them much。 Availing
themselves of the sordid policy of the Claudian era to purchase the
right of fortification； they raised in time of peace such walls as
were suited for war。 Their numbers were increased by a vast rabble
collected from the overthrow of the other cities。 All the most
obstinate rebels had escaped into the place； and perpetual seditions
were the consequence。 There were three generals； and as many armies。
Simon held the outer and larger circuit of walls。 John； also called
Bargioras； occupied the middle city。 Eleazar had fortified the temple。
John and Simon were strong in numbers and equipment； Eleazar in
position。 There were continual skirmishes； surprises； and incendiary
fires； and a vast quantity of corn was burnt。 Before long John sent
some emissaries； who； under pretence of sacrificing； slaughtered
Eleazar and his partisans； and gained possession of the temple。 The
city was thus divided between two factions； till； as the Romans
approached； war with the foreigner brought about a reconciliation。
Prodigies had occurred； which this nation； prone to superstition；
but hating all religious rites； did not deem it lawful to expiate by
offering and sacrifice。 There had been seen hosts joining battle in
the skies； the fiery gleam of arms； the temple illuminated by a sudden
radiance from the clouds。 The doors of the inner shrine were
suddenly thrown open； and a voice of more than mortal tone was heard
to cry that the Gods were departing。 At the same instant there was a
mighty stir as of departure。 Some few put a fearful meaning on these
events； but in most there was a firm persuasion； that in the ancient
records of their priests was contained a prediction of how at this
very time the East was to grow powerful； and rulers； coming from
Judaea； were to acquire universal empire。 These mysterious
prophecies had pointed to Vespasian and Titus； but the common
people； with the usual blindness of ambition； had interpreted these
mighty destinies of themselves； and could not be brought even by
disasters to believe the truth。 I have heard that the total number
of the besieged； of every age and both sexes； amounted to six
hundred thousand。 All who were able bore arms； and a number； more than
proportionate to the population； had the courage to do so。 Men and
women showed equal resolution； and life seemed more terrible than
death； if they were to be forced to leave their country。 Such was this
city and nation； and Titus Caesar； seeing that the position forbad
an assault or any of the more rapid operations of war； determined to
proceed by earthworks and covered approaches。 The legions had their
respective duties assigned to them； and there was a cessation from
fighting； till all the inventions； used in ancient warfare； or devised
by modern ingenuity for the reduction of cities； were constructed。
Meanwhile Civilis； having recruited his army from Germany after
his defeat among the Treveri； took up his position at the Old C