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had been restrained by the secular and inhibitory action of
environment； tradition； and law。
All the social bonds that formerly contained the multitude were
day by day dissolving； so that it conceived a notion of unlimited
power； and the joy of seeing its ancient masters ferreted out and
despoiled。 Having become the sovereign people； were not all
things permissible to it？
The motto of Liberty； Equality； Fraternity； a true manifestation
of hope and faith at the beginning of the Revolution； soon merely
served to cover a legal justification of the sentiments of
jealousy； cupidity； and hatred of superiors； the true motives of
crowds unrestrained by discipline。 This is why the Revolution so
soon ended in disorder； violence； and anarchy。
From the moment when the Revolution descended from the middle to
the lower classes of society； it ceased to be a domination of the
instinctive by the rational； and became； on the contrary；
the effort of the instinctive to overpower the rational。
This legal triumph of the atavistic instincts was terrible。 The
whole effort of societies an effort indispensable to their
continued existencehad always been to restrain； thanks to the
power of tradition； customs； and codes； certain natural instincts
which man has inherited from his primitive animality。 It is
possible to dominate themand the more a people does overcome
them the more civilised it isbut they cannot be destroyed。 The
influence of various exciting causes will readily result in their
reappearance。
This is why the liberation of popular passions is so dangerous。
The torrent； once escaped from its bed； does not return until it
has spread devastation far and wide。 ‘‘Woe to him who stirs up
the dregs of a nation；'' said Rivarol at the beginning of the
Revolution。 ‘‘There is no age of enlightenment for the
populace。''
3。 The supposed Part of the People during Revolution。
The laws of the psychology of crowds show us that the people
never acts without leaders； and that although it plays a
considerable part in revolutions by following and exaggerating
the impulses received； it never directs its own movements。
In all political revolutions we discover the action of leaders。
They do not create the ideas which serve as the basis of
revolutions； but they utilise them as a means of action。 Ideas；
leaders； armies； and crowds constitute four elements which all
have their part to play in revolutions。
The crowd； roused by the leaders； acts especially by means of its
mass。 Its action is comparable to that of the shell which
perforates an armour…plate by the momentum of a force it did not
create。 Rarely does the crowd understand anything of the
revolutions accomplished with its assistance。 It obediently
follows its leaders without even trying to find out what they
want。 It overthrew Charles X。 because of his Ordinances without
having any idea of the contents of the latter； and would have
been greatly embarrassed had it been asked at a later date why it
overthrew Louis…Philippe。
Deceived by appearances； many authors； from Michelet to Aulard；
have supposed that the people effected our great Revolution。
‘‘The principal actor；'' said Michelet； ‘‘is the people。''
‘‘It is an error to say；'' writes M。 Aulard； ‘‘that the French
Revolution was effected by a few distinguished people or a few
heroes。 。 。 。 I believe that in the whole history of the period
included between 1789 and 1799 not a single person stands out who
led or shaped events： neither Louis XVI。 nor Mirabeau nor Danton
nor Robespierre。 Must we say that it was the French people that
was the real hero of the French Revolution？ Yesprovided we see
the French people not as a multitude but as a number of organised
groups。''
And in a recent work M。 A。 Cochin insists on this conception of
popular action。
‘‘And here is the wonder： Michelet is right。 In proportion as
we know them better the facts seem to consecrate the fiction：
this crowd； without chiefs and without laws； the very image of
chaos； did for five years govern and command； speak and act； with
a precision； a consistency； and an entirety that were
marvellous。 Anarchy gave lessons in order and discipline to the
defeated party of order 。 。 。 twenty…five millions of men； spread
over an area of 30；000 square leagues； acted as one。''
Certainly if this simultaneous conduct of the people had been
spontaneous； as the author supposes； it would have been
marvellous。 M。 Aulard himself understands very well the
impossibilities of such a phenomenon； for he is careful； in
speaking of the people； to say that he is speaking of groups； and
that these groups may have been guided by leaders：
‘‘And what； then； cemented the national unity？ Who saved this
nation； attacked by the king and rent by civil war？ Was it
Danton？ Was it Robespierre？ Was it Carnot？ Certainly these
individual men were of service： but unity was in fact maintained
and independence assured by the grouping of the French into
communes and popular societiespeople's clubs。 It was the
municipal and Jacobin organisation of France that forced the
coalition of Europe to retreat。 But in each group； if we look
more closely； there were two or three individuals more capable
than the rest； who； whether leaders or led； executed decisions
and had the appearance of leaders； but who （if； for instance； we
read the proceedings of the people's clubs） seem to us to have
drawn their strength far more from their group than from
themselves。
M。 Aulard's mistake consists in supposing that all these groups
were derived ‘‘from a spontaneous movement of fraternity and
reason。'' France at that time was covered with thousands of
little clubs； receiving a single impulsion from the great
Jacobin Club of Paris； and obeying it with perfect docility。
This is what reality teaches us； though the illusions of the
Jacobins do not permit them to accept the fact。＇3＇
＇3＇ In the historical manuals which M。 Aulard has prepared for
the use of classes in collaboration with M。 Debidour the
role attributed to the people as an entity is even more
marked。 We see it intervening continually and spontaneously；
here are a few examples：
The ‘‘Day'' of June the 20th： ‘‘The king dismissed the
Girondist members。 The people of Paris； indignant； rose
spontaneously and invaded the Tuileries。''
The ‘‘Day'' of August 10th： ‘‘The Legislative Assembly dared
not overthrow it； it was the people of Paris； aided by the
Federals of the Departments； who effected this revolution at the
price of its blood。''
The conflict of the Girondists and the Mountain： ‘‘This
discord in the face of the enemy was dangerous。 The people put
an end to it on the days of the 31st of May and the 2nd of June；
1793； when it forced the Convention to expel the leaders of the
Gironde from its midst and to decree their arrest。''
4。 The Popular Entity and its Constituent Elements。
In order to answer to certain theoretical conceptions the people
was erected into a mystic entity； endowed with all the powers and
all the virtues； incessantly praised by the politicians； and
overwhelmed with flattery。 We shall see what we are to make of
this conception of the part played by the people in the French
Revolution。
To the Jacobins of this epoch； as to those of our own days； this
popular entity constitutes a superior personality possessing the
attributes； peculiar to divinities； of never having to answer for
its actions and never making a mistake。 Its wishes must be
humbly acceded。 The people may kill； burn； ravage； commit the
most frightful cruelties； glorify its hero to…day and throw him
into the gutter to…morrow； it is all one； the politicians will
not cease to vaunt its virtues； its high wisdom； and to bow to
its every decision。＇4＇
＇4＇ These pretensions do at least seem to be growing untenable to
the more advanced republicans。
‘‘The rage with the socialists'' writes M。 Clemenceau； ‘‘is to
endow with all the virtues； as though by a superhuman reason； the
crowd whose reason cannot be much to boast of。'' The famous
statesman might say more correctly that reason not only cannot be
prominent in the crowd but is practically nonexistent。
Now in what does this entity really consist； this mysterious
fetich which revolutionists have revered for more than a century？
It may be decomposed into two distinct categories。 The first
includes the peasants； traders； and workers of all sorts who need
tranquillity and order that they may exercise their calling。
This people forms the majority； but a majority which never caused
a revolution。 Living in laborious silence； it is ignored by the
historians。
The second category； which plays a capital part in all national
disturbances； consists of a subversive social