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The second category； which plays a capital part in all national
disturbances； consists of a subversive social residue dominated
by a criminal mentality。 Degenerates of alcoholism and poverty；
thieves； beggars； destitute ‘‘casuals；'' indifferent workers
without employmentthese constitute the dangerous bulk of the
armies of insurrection。
The fear of punishment prevents many of them from becoming
criminals at ordinary times； but they do become criminals as soon
as they can exercise their evil instincts without danger。
To this sinister substratum are due the massacres which stain all
revolutions。
It was this class which； guided by its leaders； continually
invaded the great revolutionary Assemblies。 These regiments of
disorder had no other ideal than that of massacre； pillage； and
incendiarism。 Their indifference to theories and principles was
complete。
To the elements recruited from the lowest dregs of the populace
are added； by way of contagion； a host of idle and indifferent
persons who are simply drawn into the movement。 They shout
because there are men shouting； and revolt because there is a
revolt； without having the vaguest idea of the cause of shouting
or revolution。 The suggestive power of their environment
absolutely hypnotises them； and impels them to action。
These noisy and maleficent crowds； the kernel of all
insurrections； from antiquity to our own times； are the only
crowds known to the orator。 To the orator they are the sovereign
people。 As a matter of fact this sovereign people is principally
composed of the lower populace of whom Thiers said：
‘‘Since the time when Tacitus saw it applaud the crimes of the
emperors the vile populace has not changed。 These barbarians who
swarm at the bottom of societies are always ready to stain the
people with every crime； at the beck of every power； and to the
dishonour of every cause。''
At no period of history was the role of the lowest elements
of the population exercised in such a lasting fashion as in the
French Revolution。
The massacres began as soon as the beast was unchainedthat is；
from 1789； long before the Convention。 They were carried
out with all possible refinements of cruelty。 During the killing
of September the prisoners were slowly chopped to bits by sabre…
cuts in order to prolong their agonies and amuse the spectators；
who experienced the greatest delight before the spectacle of the
convulsions of the victims and their shrieks of agony。
Similar scenes were observed all over France； even in the early
days of the Revolution； although the foreign war did not excuse
them then； nor any other pretext。
From March to September a whole series of burnings； killings； and
pillagings drenched all France in blood。 Taine cites one hundred
and twenty such cases。 Rouen； Lyons； Strasbourg； &c。； fell into
the power of the populace。
The Mayor of Troyes； his eyes destroyed by blows of scissors； was
murdered after hours of suffering。 The Colonel of Dragoons
Belzuce was cut to pieces while living。 In many places the
hearts of the victims were torn out and carried about the cities
on the point of a pike。
Such is the behaviour of the base populace so soon as imprudent
hands have broken the network of constraints which binds its
ancestral savagery。 It meets with every indulgence because it is
in the interests of the politicians to flatter it。 But let us
for a moment suppose the thousands of beings who constitute it
condensed into one single being。 The personality thus formed
would appear as a cruel and narrow and abominable monster； more
horrible than the bloodiest tyrants of history。
This impulsive and ferocious people has always been easily
dominated so soon as a strong power has opposed it。 If its
violence is unlimited； so is its servility。 All the despotisms
have had it for their servant。 The Caesars are certain of
being acclaimed by it； whether they are named Caligula； Nero；
Marat； Robespierre； or Boulanger。
Beside these destructive hordes whose action during revolution is
capital； there exists； as we have already remarked； the mass of
the true people； which asks only the right to labour。 It
sometimes benefits by revolutions； but never causes them。 The
revolutionary theorists know little of it and distrust it； aware
of its traditional and conservative basis。 The resistant nucleus
of a country； it makes the strength and continuity of the latter。
Extremely docile through fear； easily influenced by its leaders；
it will momentarily commit every excess while under their
influence； but the ancestral inertia of the race will soon take
charge again； which is the reason why it so quickly tires of
revolution。 Its traditional soul quickly incites it to oppose
itself to anarchy when the latter goes too far。 At such times it
seeks the leader who will restore order。
This people； resigned and peaceable； has evidently no very lofty
nor complicated political conceptions。 Its governmental ideal is
always very simple； is something very like dictatorship。 This is
why； from the times of the Greeks to our own； dictatorship has
always followed anarchy。 It followed it after the first
Revolution； when Bonaparte was acclaimed； and again when； despite
opposition； four successive plebiscites raised Louis Napoleon to
the head of the republic； ratified his coup d'etat；
re…established the Empire； and in 1870； before the war； approved
of his rule。
Doubtless in these last instances the people was deceived。 But
without the revolutionary conspiracies which led to disorder； it
would not have been impelled to seek the means of escape
therefrom。
The facts recalled in this chapter must not be forgotten if we
wish fully to comprehend the various roles of the people
during revolution。 Its action is considerable； but very unlike
that imagined by the legends whose repetition alone constitutes
their vitality。
BOOK II
THE FORMS OF MENTALITY PREVALENT DURING REVOLUTION
CHAPTER I
INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS OF CHARACTER IN TIME OF REVOLUTION
1。 Transformations of Personality。
I have dwelt at length elsewhere upon a certain theory of
character； without which it is absolutely impossible to
understand divers transformations or inconsistencies of conduct
which occur at certain moments； notably in time of revolution。
Here are the principal points of this theory：
Every individual possesses； besides his habitual mentality；
which； when the environment does not alter； is almost constant；
various possibilities of character which may be evoked by passing
events。
The people who surround us are the creatures of certain
circumstances； but not of all circumstances。 Our ego consists of
the association of innumerable cellular egos； the residues of
ancestral personalities。 By their combination they form an
equilibrium which is fairly permanent when the social environment
does not vary。 As soon as this environment is considerably
modified； as in time of insurrection； this equilibrium is broken；
and the dissociated elements constitute； by a fresh aggregation；
a new personality； which is manifested by ideas； feelings； and
actions very different from those formerly observed in the same
individual。 Thus it is that during the Terror we see honest
bourgeois and peaceful magistrates who were noted for their
kindness turned into bloodthirsty fanatics。
Under the influence of environment the old personality may
therefore give place to one entirely new。 For this reason the
actors in great religious and political crises often seem of a
different essence to ourselves； yet they do not differ from us；
the repetition of the same events would bring back the same men。
Napoleon perfectly understood these possibilities of character
when he said； in Saint Helena：
‘‘It is because I know just how great a part chance plays in our
political decisions； that I have always been without prejudices；
and very indulgent as to the part men have taken during our
disturbances。 。 。 。 In time of revolution one can only say what
one has done； it would not be wise to say that one could not have
done otherwise。 。 。 。 Men are difficult to understand if we want
to be just。 。 。 。 Do they know themselves？ Do they account for
themselves very clearly？ There are virtues and vices of
circumstance。''
When the normal personality has been disaggregated under the
influence of certain events； how does the new personality form
itself？ By several means； the most active of which is the
acquisition of a strong belief。 This orientates all the elements
of the understanding； as the magnet collects into regular
curves the filings of a magnetic metal。
Thus were formed the personalities observed in times of great
crises： the Crusades； the Reformation； the Revolution notably。
At normal times the env