按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
crises： the Crusades； the Reformation； the Revolution notably。
At normal times the environment varies little； so that as a rule
we see only a single personality in the individuals that surround
us。 Sometimes； however； it happens that we observe several；
which in certain circumstances may replace one another。
These personalities may be contradictory and even inimical。 This
phenomenon； exceptional under normal conditions； is considerably
accentuated in certain pathological conditions。 Morbid
psychology has recorded several examples of multiple personality
in a single subject； such as the cases cited by Morton Prince and
Pierre Janet。
In all these variations of personality it is not the intelligence
which is modified； but the feelings； whose association forms the
character。
2。 Elements of Character Predominant in Time of Revolution。
During revolution we see several sentiments developed which are
commonly repressed； but to which the destruction of social
constraints gives a free vent。
These constraints； consisting of the law； morality； and
tradition； are not always completely broken。 Some survive the
upheaval and serve to some extent to damp the explosion of
dangerous sentiments。
The most powerful of these restraints is the soul of the race。
This determines a manner of seeing； feeling； and willing
common to the majority of the individuals of the same people； it
constitutes a hereditary custom； and nothing is more powerful
than the ties of custom。
This racial influence limits the variations of a people and
determines its destiny within certain limits in spite of all
superficial changes。
For example； to take only the instances of history； it would seem
that the mentality of France must have varied enormously during a
single century。 In a few years it passed from the Revolution to
Caesarism； returned to the monarchy； effected another
Revolution； and then summoned a new Caesar。 In reality only
the outsides of things had changed。
We cannot insist further here on the limits of national
variability； but must now consider the influence of certain
affective elements； whose development during revolution
contributes to modify individual or collective personalities。 In
particular I will mention hatred； fear； ambition； jealousy or
envy； vanity； and enthusiasm。 We observe their influence during
several of the upheavals of history； notably during the course of
the French Revolution； which will furnish us with most of our
examples。
Hatred。The hatred of persons； institutions； and things which
animated the men of the Revolution is one of these affective
phenomena which are the more striking the more one studies their
psychology。 They detested； not only their enemies； but the
members of their own party。 ‘‘If one were to accept
unreservedly；'' said a recent writer； ‘‘the judgments which they
expressed of one another； we should have to conclude that they
were all traitors and boasters； all incapable and corrupt；
all assassins or tyrants。'' We know with what hatred； scarcely
appeased by the death of their enemies； men persecuted the
Girondists； Dantonists； Hebertists； Robespierrists； &c。
One of the chief causes of this feeling resided in the fact that
these furious sectaries； being apostles in possession of the
absolute verity； were unable； like all believers； to tolerate the
sight of infidels。 A mystic or sentimental certitude is always
accompanied by the need of forcing itself on others； is never
convinced； and does not shrink from wholesale slaughter when it
has the power to commit it。
If the hatreds that divided the men of the Revolution had been of
rational origin they would not have lasted long； but； arising
from affective and mystic factors； men could neither forget nor
forgive。 Their sources being identical in the different parties；
they manifested themselves on every hand with identical violence。
It has been proved； by means of documents； that the Girondists
were no less sanguinary than the Montagnards。 They were the
first to declare； with Petion； that the vanquished parties
should perish。 They also； according to M。 Aulard； attempted to
justify the massacres of September。 The Terror must not be
considered simply as a means of defence； but as the general
process of destruction to which triumphant believers have always
treated their detested enemies。 Men who can put up with the
greatest divergence of ideas cannot tolerate differences of
belief。
In religious or political warfare the vanquished can hope for no
quarter。 From Sulla； who cut the throats of two hundred senators
and five or six thousand Romans； to the men who suppressed the
Commune； and shot down more than twenty thousand after
their victory； this bloody law has never failed。 Proved over and
over again in the past； it will doubtless be so in the future。
The hatreds of the Revolution did not arise entirely from
divergence of belief。 Other sentimentsenvy； ambition； and
self…lovealso engendered them。 The rivalry of individuals
aspiring to power led the chiefs of the various groups in
succession to the scaffold。
We must remember； moreover； that the need of division and the
hatred resulting therefrom seem to be constituent elements of the
Latin mind。 They cost our Gaulish ancestors their independence；
and had already struck Caesar。
‘‘No city；'' he said； ‘‘but was divided into two factions； no
canton； no village； no house in which the spirit of party did not
breathe。 It was very rarely that a year went by without a city
taking up arms to attack or repulse its neighbours。''
As man has only recently entered upon the age of knowledge； and
has always hitherto been guided by sentiments and beliefs； we may
conceive the vast importance of hatred as a factor of his
history。
Commandant Colin； professor at the College of War； remarks in the
following terms on the importance of this feeling during certain
wars：
‘‘In war more than at any other time there is no better inspiring
force than hatred； it was hatred that made Blucher victorious
over Napoleon。 Analyse the most wonderful manoeuvres； the most
decisive operations； and if they are not the work of an
exceptional man； a Frederick or a Napoleon； you will find they
are inspired by passion more than by calculation。 What
would the war of 1870 have been without the hatred which we bore
the Germans？''
The writer might have added that the intense hatred of the
Japanese for the Russians； who had so humiliated them； might be
classed among the causes of their success。 The Russian soldiers；
ignorant of the very existence of the Japanese； had no animosity
against them； which was one of the reasons of their failure。
There was assuredly a good deal of talk of fraternity at the time
of the Revolution； and there is even more to…day。 Pacificism；
humanitarianism； and solidarity have become catchwords of the
advanced parties； but we know how profound are the hatreds
concealed beneath these terms； and what dangers overhang our
modern society。
Fear。Fear plays almost as large a part in revolutions as
hatred。 During the French Revolution there were many examples of
great individual courage and many exhibitions of collective
cowardice。
Facing the scaffold； the men of the Convention were always brave
in the extreme； but before the threats of the rioters who invaded
the Assembly they constantly exhibited an excessive
pusillanimity； obeying the most absurd injunctions； as we shall
see if we re…read the history of the revolutionary Assemblies。
All the forms of fear were observed at this period。 One of the
most widespread was the fear of appearing moderate。 Members of
the Assemblies； public prosecutors； representatives ‘‘on
mission；'' judges of the revolutionary tribunals； &c。； all sought
to appear more advanced than their rivals。 Fear was one of the
principal elements of the crimes committed at this period。
If by some miracle it could have been eliminated from the
revolutionary Assemblies； their conduct would have been quite
other than it was； and the Revolution itself would have taken a
very different direction。
Ambition； Envy； Vanity； &c。In normal times the influence of
these various affective elements is forcibly contained by social
necessities。 Ambition； for instance； is necessarily limited in a
hierarchical form of society。 Although the soldier does
sometimes become a general； it is only after a long term of
service。 In time of revolution； on the other hand； there is no
need to wait。 Every one may reach the upper ranks almost
immediately； so that all ambitions are violently aroused。 The
humblest man believes himself fitted for the highest employments；
and by this very fact his vanity grows out of all measure。
All the passions being more or less aroused； including ambition
and