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itself beaten。 Profiting by the king's absence； it
arrested Berquin again and had him tried by Parliament。
Condemned at ten in the morning； he was burned alive at noon。
Built up very gradually； the power of the kings of France was not
absolute until the time of Louis XIV。 It then rapidly declined；
and it would be truly difficult to speak of the absolutism of
Louis XVI。
This pretended master was the slave of his court； his ministers；
the clergy； and the nobles。 He did what they forced him to do
and rarely what he wished。 Perhaps no Frenchman was so little
free as the king。
The great power of the monarchy resided originally in the Divine
origin which was attributed to it； and in the traditions which
had accumulated during the ages。 These formed the real social
framework of the country。
The true cause of the disappearance of the ancien regime was
simply the weakening of the traditions which served as its
foundations。 When after repeated criticism it could find no more
defenders； the ancien regime crumbled like a building whose
foundations have been destroyed。
2。 The Inconveniences of the Ancien Regime
A long…established system of government will always finally seem
acceptable to the people governed。 Habit masks its
inconveniences； which appear only when men begin to think。 Then
they ask how they could ever have supported them。 The truly
unhappy man is the man who believes himself miserable。
It was precisely this belief which was gaining ground at the time
of the Revolution； under the influence of the writers whose work
we shall presently study。 Then the imperfections of the
ancien regime stared all men in the face。 They were
numerous； it is enough to mention a few。
Despite the apparent authority of the central power； the kingdom；
formed by the successive conquest of independent provinces； was
divided into territories each of which had its own laws and
customs； and each of which paid different imposts。 Internal
customs…houses separated them。 The unity of France was thus
somewhat artificial。 It represented an aggregate of various
countries which the repeated efforts of the kings； including
Louis XIV。； had not succeeded in wholly unifying。 The most
useful effect of the Revolution was this very unification。
To such material divisions were added social divisions
constituted by different classesnobles； clergy； and the Third
Estate； whose rigid barriers could only with the utmost
difficulty be crossed。
Regarding the division of the classes as one of its sources of
power； the ancien regime had rigorously maintained that
division。 This became the principal cause of the hatreds which
the system inspired。 Much of the violence of the triumphant
bourgeoisie represented vengeance for a long past of disdain
and oppression。 The wounds of self…love are the most difficult
of all to forget。 The Third Estate had suffered many such
wounds。 At a meeting of the States General in 1614； at which its
representatives were obliged to remain bareheaded on their knees；
one member of the Third Estate having dared to say that the three
orders were like three brothers； the spokesman of the nobles
replied ‘‘that there was no fraternity between it and the Third；
that the nobles did not wish the children of cobblers and
tanners to call them their brothers。''
Despite the march of enlightenment the nobles and the clergy
obstinately preserved their privileges and their demands； no
longer justifiable now that these classes had ceased to render
services。
Kept from the exercise of public functions by the royal power；
which distrusted them； and progressively replaced by a
bourgeoisie which was more and more learned and capable； the
social role of nobility and clergy was only an empty show。
This point has been luminously expounded by Taine：
‘‘Since the nobility； having lost its special capacity； and the
Third Estate； having acquired general capacity； were now on a
level in respect of education and aptitudes； the inequality which
divided them had become hurtful and useless。 Instituted by
custom； it was no longer ratified by the consciousness； and the
Third Estate was with reason angered by privileges which nothing
justified； neither the capacity of the nobles nor the incapacity
of the bourgeoisie。''
By reason of the rigidity of castes established by a long past we
cannot see what could have persuaded the nobles and the clergy to
renounce their privileges。 Certainly they did finally abandon
them one memorable evening； when events forced them to do so； but
then it was too late； and the Revolution； unchained； was pursuing
its course。
It is certain that modern progress would successively have
established all that the Revolution effectedthe equality of
citizens before the law； the suppression of the privileges of
birth； &c。 Despite the conservative spirit of the Latins； these
things would have been won； as they were by the majority
of the peoples。 We might in this manner have been saved twenty
years of warfare and devastation； but we must have had a
different mental constitution； and； above all； different
statesmen。
The profound hostility of the bourgeoisie against the classes
maintained above it by tradition was one of the great factors of
the Revolution； and perfectly explains why； after its triumph；
the first class despoiled the vanquished of their wealth。 They
behaved as conquerorslike William the Conqueror； who； after the
conquest of England； distributed the soil among his soldiers。
But although the bourgeoisie detested the nobility they had no
hatred for royalty； and did not regard it as revocable。 The
maladdress of the king and his appeals to foreign powers only
very gradually made him unpopular。
The first Assembly never dreamed of founding a republic。
Extremely royalist； in fact； it thought simply to substitute a
constitutional for an absolute monarchy。 Only the consciousness
of its increasing power exasperated it against the resistance of
the king； but it dared not overthrow him。
3。 Life under the Ancien Regime。
It is difficult to form a very clear idea of life under the
ancien regime； and； above all； of the real situation of the
peasants。
The writers who defend the Revolution as theologians defend
religious dogmas draw such gloomy pictures of the existence of
the peasants under the ancien regime that we ask ourselves
how it was that all these unhappy creatures had not died
of hunger long before。 A good example of this style of writing
may be found in a book by M。 A。 Rambaud； formerly professor at
the Sorbonne； published under the title History of the French
Revolution。 One notices especially an engraving bearing the
legend； Poverty of Peasants under Louis XIV。 In the foreground
a man is fighting some dogs for some bones； which for that matter
are already quite fleshless。 Beside him a wretched fellow is
twisting himself and compressing his stomach。 Farther back a
woman lying on the ground is eating grass。 At the back of the
landscape figures of which one cannot say whether they are
corpses or persons starving are also stretched on the soil。 As
an example of the administration of the ancien regime the
same author assures us that ‘‘a place in the police cost 300
livres and brought in 400；000。'' Such figures surely indicate a
great disinterestedness on the part of those who sold such
productive employment！ He also informs us ‘‘that it cost only
120 livres to get people arrested；'' and that ‘‘under Louis XV。
more than 150；000 lettres de cachet were distributed。''
The majority of books dealing with the Revolution are conceived
with as little impartiality and critical spirit； which is one
reason why this period is really so little known to us。
Certainly there is no lack of documents； but they are absolutely
contradictory。 To the celebrated description of La Bruyere we
may oppose the enthusiastic picture drawn by the English
traveller Young of the prosperous condition of the peasants of
some of the French provinces。
Were they really crushed by taxation； and did they； as has been
stated； pay four…fifths of their revenue instead of a fifth as
to…day？ Impossible to say with certainty。 One capital fact；
however； seems to prove that under the ancien regime the
situation of the inhabitants of the rural districts could not
have been so very wretched； since it seems established that more
than a third of the soil had been bought by peasants。
We are better informed as to the financial system。 It was very
oppressive and extremely complicated。 The budgets usually showed
deficits； and the imposts of all kinds were raised by tyrannical
farmers…general。 At the very moment of the Revolution this
condition of the finances became the cause of universal
discontent； which is expressed in the cahiers of