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condition of the finances became the cause of universal
discontent； which is expressed in the cahiers of the States
General。 Let us remark that these cahiers did not represent a
previous state of affairs； but an actual condition due to a
crisis of poverty produced by the bad harvest of 1788 and the
hard winter of 1789。 What would these cahiers have told us had
they been written ten years earlier？
Despite these unfavourable circumstances the cahiers contained
no revolutionary ideas。 The most advanced merely asked that
taxes should be imposed only with the consent of the States
General and paid by all alike。 The same cahiers sometimes
expressed a wish that the power of the king should be limited by
a Constitution defining his rights and those of the nation。 If
these wishes had been granted a constitutional monarchy could
very easily have been substituted for the absolute monarchy； and
the Revolution would probably have been avoided。
Unhappily； the nobility and the clergy were too strong and Louis
XVI。 too weak for such a solution to be possible。
Moreover； it would have been rendered extremely difficult by the
demands of the bourgeoisie； who claimed to substitute themselves
for the nobles； and were the real authors of the Revolution。 The
movement started by the middle classes rapidly exceeded their
hopes； needs； and aspirations。 They had claimed equality for
their own profit； but the people also demanded equality。 The
Revolution thus finally became the popular government which it
was not and had no intention of becoming at the outset。
4。 Evolution of Monarchical Feeling during the Revolution。
Despite the slow evolution of the affective elements； it is
certain that during the Revolution the sentiments； not of the
people only； but also of the revolutionary Assemblies with regard
to the monarchy； underwent a very rapid change。 Between the
moment when the legislators of the first Assembly surrounded
Louis XVI。 with respect and the moment when his head was cut off
a very few years had elapsed。
These changes； superficial rather than profound； were in reality
a mere transposition of sentiments of the same order。 The love
which the men of this period professed for the king was
transferred to the new Government which had inherited his power。
The mechanism of such a transfer may easily be demonstrated。
Under the ancien regime； the sovereign； holding his power by
Divine right； was for this reason invested with a kind of
supernatural power。 His people looked up to him from every
corner of the country。
This mystic belief in the absolute power of royalty was shattered
only when repeated experience proved that the power attributed to
the adored being was fictitious。 He then lost his prestige。
Now； when prestige is lost the crowd will not forgive the fallen
idol for deluding them； and seek anew the idol without which they
cannot exist。
From the outset of the Revolution numerous facts； which were
daily repeated； revealed to the most fervent believers the fact
that royalty no longer possessed any power； and that there were
other powers capable； not only of contending with royalty； but
possessed of superior force。
What； for instance； was thought of the royal power by the
multitudes who saw the king held in check by the Assembly； and
incapable； in the heart of Paris； of defending his strongest
fortress against the attacks of armed bands？
The royal weakness thus being obvious； the power of the Assembly
was increasing。 Now； in the eyes of the crowd weakness has no
prestige； it turns always to force。
In the Assemblies feeling was very fluid； but did not evolve very
rapidly； for which reason the monarchical faith survived the
taking of the Bastille the flight of the king； and his
understanding with foreign sovereigns。
The royalist faith was still so powerful that the Parisian riots
and the events which led to the execution of Louis XVI。 were not
enough finally to destroy； in the provinces； the species
of secular piety which enveloped the old monarchy。＇8＇
＇8＇ As an instance of the depth of this hereditary love of the
people for its kings； Michelet relates the following fact； which
occurred in the reign of Louis XV。： ‘‘When it was known in Paris
that Louis XV。； who had left for the army； was detained ill at
Metz； it was night。 People got up and ran tumultuously hither
and thither without knowing where they were going； the churches
were opened in the middle of the night 。 。 。 people assembled at
every cross…road； jostling and questioning one another without
knowing what they were after。 In several churches the priest who
was reciting the prayer for the king's health was stopped by his
tears； and the people replied by sobs and cries。 。 。 。 The
courier who brought the news of his convalescence was embraced
and almost stifled； people kissed his horse； and led him in
triumph。 。 。 。 Every street resounded with a cry of joy： ‘The
king is healed。' ''
It persisted in a great part of France during the whole of the
Revolution； and was the origin of the royalist conspiracies and
insurrections in various departments which the Convention had
such trouble to suppress。 The royalist faith had disappeared in
Paris； where the weakness of the king was too plainly visible；
but in the provinces the royal power； representing God on earth；
still retained its prestige。
The royalist sentiments of the people must have been deeply
rooted to survive the guillotine。 The royalist movements
persisted； indeed； during the whole of the Revolution； and were
accentuated under the Directory； when forty…nine departments sent
royalist deputies to Paris； which provoked the Directory to the
coup d'etat of Fructidor。
This monarchical…feeling； with difficulty repressed by the
Revolution； contributed to the success of Bonaparte when he came
to occupy the throne of the ancient kings； and in great measure
to re…establish the ancien regime。
CHAPTER III
MENTAL ANARCHY AT THE TIME OF THE REVOLUTION AND THE INFLUENCE
ATTRIBUTED TO THE PHILOSOPHERS
1。 Origin and Propagation of Revolutionary Ideas。
The outward life of men in every age is moulded upon an inward
life consisting of a framework of traditions； sentiments； and
moral influences which direct their conduct and maintain certain
fundamental notions which they accept without discussion。
Let the resistance of this social framework weaken； and ideas
which could have had no force before will germinate and develop。
Certain theories whose success was enormous at the time of the
Revolution would have encountered an impregnable wall two
centuries earlier。
The aim of these considerations is to recall to the reader the
fact that the outward events of revolutions are always a
consequence of invisible transformations which have slowly gone
forward in men's minds。 Any profound study of a revolution
necessitates a study of the mental soil upon which the ideas that
direct its course have to germinate。
Generally slow in the extreme； the evolution of ideas is often
invisible for a whole generation。 Its extent can only be grasped
by comparing the mental condition of the same social
classes at the two extremities of the curve which the mind has
followed。 To realise the different conceptions of royalty
entertained by educated men under Louis XIV。 and Louis XVI。； we
must compare the political theories of Bossuet and Turgot。
Bossuet expressed the general conceptions of his time concerning
the absolute monarchy when he based the authority of a Government
upon the will of God； ‘‘sole judge of the actions of kings；
always irresponsible before men。'' Religious faith was then as
strong as the monarchical faith from which it seemed inseparable；
and no philosopher could have shaken it。
The writings of the reforming ministers of Louis XVI。； those of
Turgot； for instance； are animated by quite another spirit。 Of
the Divine right of kings there is hardly a word； and the rights
of the peoples begin to be clearly defined。
Many events had contributed to prepare for such an evolution
unfortunate wars； famines； imposts； general poverty at the end of
the reign of Louis XV。； &c。 Slowly destroyed； respect for
monarchical authority was replaced by a mental revolt which was
ready to manifest itself as soon as occasion should arise。
When once the mental framework commences to crumble the end comes
rapidly。 This is why at the time of the Revolution ideas were so
quickly propagated which were by no means new； but which until
then had exerted no influence； as they had not fallen on fruitful
ground。
Yet the ideas which were then so attractive and effectual had
often been expressed。 For a long time they had inspired the
politics of England。 Two thousand years earlier the Greek and
La