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liberty。 To…day our working…men have completely surrendered it
to their unions。
To sum up： although the Republican motto has been little
applied it has exerted a very great influence。 Of the French
Revolution practically nothing has remained in the popular mind
but the three celebrated words which sum up its gospel； and which
its armies spread over Europe。
BOOK II
THE RATIONAL； AFFECTIVE； MYSTIC； AND COLLECTIVE INFLUENCES ACTIVE
DURING THE REVOLUTION
CHAPTER I
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
1。 Psychological Influences active during the French Revolution。
The genesis of the French Revolution； as well as its duration；
was conditioned by elements of a rational； affective； mystic； and
collective nature； each category of which was ruled by a
different logic。 It is； as I have said； because they have not
been able to dissociate the respective influences of these
factors that so many historians have interpreted this period so
indifferently
The rational element usually invoked as an explanation exerted in
reality but a very slight influence。 It prepared the way for the
Revolution； but maintained it only at the outset； while it was
still exclusively middle…class。 Its action was manifested by
many measures of the time； such as the proposals to reform the
taxes； the suppression of the privileges of a useless nobility；
&c。
As soon as the Revolution reached the people； the influence of
the rational elements speedily vanished before that of the
affective and collective elements。 As for the mystic elements；
the foundation of the revolutionary faith； they made the army
fanatical and propagated the new belief throughout the world。
We shall see these various elements as they appeared in events
and in the psychology of individuals。 Perhaps the most important
was the mystic element。 The Revolution cannot be clearly
comprehendedwe cannot repeat it too oftenunless it is
considered as the formation of a religious belief。 What I have
said elsewhere of all beliefs applies equally to the Revolution。
Referring； for instance； to the chapter on the Reformation； the
reader will see that it presents more than one analogy with the
Revolution。
Having wasted so much time in demonstrating the slight rational
value of beliefs； the philosophers are to…day beginning to
understand their function better。 They have been forced to admit
that these are the only factors which possess an influence
sufficient to transform all the elements of a civilisation。
They impose themselves on men apart from reason and have the
power to polarise men's thoughts and feelings in one direction。
Pure reason had never such a power； for men were never
impassioned by reason。
The religious form rapidly assumed by the Revolution explains its
power of expansion and the prestige which it possessed and has
retained。
Few historians have understood that this great monument ought to
be regarded as the foundation of a new religion。 The penetrating
mind of Tocqueville； I believe； was the first to perceive as
much。
‘‘The French Revolution；'' he wrote； ‘‘was a political revolution
which operated in the manner of and assumed something of the
aspect of a religious revolution。 See by what regular and
characteristic traits it finally resembled the latter： not only
did it spread itself far and wide like a religious revolution；
but； like the latter； it spread itself by means of preaching and
propaganda。 A political revolution which inspires proselytes；
which is preached as passionately to foreigners as it is
accomplished at home： consider what a novel spectacle was this。''
The religious side of the Revolution being granted； the
accompanying fury and devastation are easily explained。 History
shows us that such are always the accompaniments of the birth of
religions。 The Revolution was therefore certain to provoke the
violence and intolerance the triumphant deities demand from their
adepts。 It overturned all Europe for twenty years； ruined
France； caused the death of millions of men； and cost the country
several invasions： but it is as a rule only at the cost of such
catastrophes that a people can change its beliefs。
Although the mystic element is always the foundation of beliefs；
certain affective and rational elements are quickly added
thereto。 A belief thus serves to group sentiments and passions
and interests which belong to the affective domain。 Reason then
envelops the whole； seeking to justify events in which； however；
it played no part whatever。
At the moment of the Revolution every one； according to his
aspirations； dressed the new belief in a different rational
vesture。 The peoples saw in it only the suppression of the
religious and political despotisms and hierarchies under
which they had so often suffered。 Writers like Goethe and
thinkers like Kant imagined that they saw in it the triumph of
reason。 Foreigners like Humboldt came to France ‘‘to breathe the
air of liberty and to assist at the obsequies of despotism。''
These intellectual illusions did not last long。 The evolution of
the drama soon revealed the true foundations of the dream。
2。 Dissolution of the Ancien Regime。 The assembling of the
States General。
Before they are realised in action； revolutions are sketched out
in men's thoughts。 Prepared by the causes already studied； the
French Revolution commenced in reality with the reign of Louis
XVI。 More discontented and censorious every day； the middle
classes added claim to claim。 Everybody was calling for reform。
Louis XVI。 thoroughly understood the utility of reform； but he
was too weak to impose it on the clergy and the nobility。 He
could not even retain his reforming ministers； Malesherbes and
Turgot。 What with famines and increased taxation； the poverty of
all classes increased； and the huge pensions drawn by the Court
formed a shocking contrast to the general distress。
The notables convoked to attempt to remedy the financial
situation refused a system of equal taxation； and granted only
insignificant reforms which the Parliament did not even consent
to register。 It had to be dissolved。 The provincial Parliaments
made common cause with that of Paris； and were also dissolved。
But they led opinion； and in all parts of France promoted
the demand for a meeting of the States General； which had not
been convoked for nearly two hundred years。
The decision was taken： 5；000；000 Frenchmen； of whom 100；000
were ecclesiastics and 150；000 nobles； sent their
representatives。 There were in all 1；200 deputies； of whom 578
were of the Third Estate； consisting chiefly of magistrates；
advocates； and physicians。 Of the 300 deputies of the clergy；
200； of plebeian origin； threw in their lot with the Third Estate
against the nobility and clergy。
From the first sessions a psychological conflict broke out
between the deputies of different social conditions and
（therefore） different mentalities。 The magnificent costumes of
the privileged deputies contrasted in a humiliating fashion with
the sombre fashions of the Third Estate。
At the first session the members of the nobility and the clergy
were covered； according to the prerogatives of their class；
before the king。 Those of the Third Estate wished to imitate
them； but the privileged members protested。 On the following day
more protests of wounded self…love were heard。 The deputies of
the Third Estate invited those of the nobility and the clergy who
were sitting in separate halls to join them for the verification
of their powers。 The nobles refused。 The negotiations lasted
more than a month。 Finally； the deputies of the Third Estate； on
the proposition of the Abbe Sieyes； considering that
they represented 95 per cent。 of the nation； declared themselves
constituted as a National Assembly。 From that moment the
Revolution pursued its course。
3。 The Constituent Assembly。
The power of a political assembly resides； above all； in the
weakness of its adversaries。 Astonished by the slight resistance
encountered； and carried away by the ascendancy of a handful of
orators； the Constituent Assembly； from its earliest sessions；
spoke and acted as a sovereign body。 Notably it arrogated to
itself the power of decreeing imposts； a serious encroachment
upon the prerogatives of the royal power。
The resistance of Louis XVI。 was feeble enough。 He simply had
the hall in which the States assembled closed。 The deputies then
met in the hall of the tennis…court； and took the oath that they
would not separate until the Constitution of the kingdom was an
established fact。
The majority of the deputies of the clergy went with them。 The
king revoked the decision of the Assembly； and ordered the
deputies to retire。 The Marquis de Dreux…Breze； the Gran