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an alliance against France in February； 1792。 The French
anticipated attack by declaring war upon Austria； under the
influence of the Girondists。 The French army was at the outset
subjected to several checks。 The allies penetrated into
Champagne； and came within 130 miles of Paris。 Dumouriez'
victory at Valmy forced them to retire。
Although 300 French and 200 Prussians only were killed in this
battle； it had very significant results。 The fact that an army
reputed invincible had been forced to retreat gave boldness to
the young revolutionary troops； and everywhere they took the
offensive。 In a few weeks the soldiers of Valmy had chased the
Austrians out of Belgium； where they were welcomed as liberators。
But it was under the Convention that the war assumed such
importance。 At the beginning of 1793 the Assembly declared that
Belgium was united to France。 From this resulted a conflict with
England which lasted for twenty…two years。
Assembled at Antwerp in April； 1793； the representatives of
England； Prussia； and Austria resolved to dismember France。 The
Prussians were to seize Alsace and Lorraine； the Austrians；
Flanders and Artois； the English； Dunkirk。 The Austrian
ambassador proposed to crush the Revolution by terror；
‘‘by exterminating practically the whole of the party directing
the nation。'' In the face of such declarations France had
perforce to conquer or to perish。
During this first coalition； between 1793 and 1797； France had to
fight on all her frontiers； from the Pyrenees to the north。
At the outset she lost her former conquests； and suffered several
reverses。 The Spaniards took Perpignan and Bayonne； the English；
Toulon； and the Austrians； Valenciennes。 It was then that the
Convention； towards the end of 1793； ordered a general levy of
all Frenchmen between the ages of eighteen and forty； and
succeeded in sending to the frontiers a total of some 750；000
men。 The old regiments of the royal army were combined with
battalions of volunteers and conscripts。
The allies were repulsed； and Maubeuge was relieved after the
victory of Wattigny； which was gained by Jourdan。 Hoche rescued
Lorraine。 France took the offensive； reconquering Belgium and
the left bank of the Rhine。 Jourdan defeated the Austrians at
Fleurus； drove them back upon the Rhine； and occupied Cologne and
Coblentz。 Holland was invaded。 The allied sovereigns resigned
themselves to suing for peace； and recognised the French
conquests。
The successes of the French were favoured by the fact that the
enemy never put their whole heart into the affair； as they were
preoccupied by the partition of Poland； which they effected in
1793…5。 Each Power wished to be on the spot in order to obtain
more territory。 This motive had already caused the King
of Prussia to retire after the battle of Valmy in 1792。
The hesitations of the allies and their mutual distrust were
extremely advantageous to the French。 Had the Austrians marched
upon Paris in the summer of 1793； ‘‘we should；'' said General
Thiebault； ‘‘have lost a hundred times for one。 They alone
saved us； by giving us time to make soldiers； officers； and
generals。''
After the treaty of Basle； France had no important adversaries on
the Continent； save the Austrians。 It was then that the
Directory attacked Austria in Italy。 Bonaparte was entrusted
with the charge of this campaign。 After a year of fighting； from
April； 1796； to April； 1797； he forced the last enemies of France
to demand peace。
3。 Psychological and Military Factors which determined the
Success of the Revolutionary Armies。
To realise the causes of the success of the revolutionary armies
we must remember the prodigious enthusiasm； endurance； and
abnegation of these ragged and often barefoot troops。 Thoroughly
steeped in revolutionary principles； they felt that they were the
apostles of a new religion； which was destined to regenerate the
world。
The history of the armies of the Revolution recalls that of the
nomads of Arabia； who； excited to fanaticism by the ideals of
Mohammed； were transformed into formidable armies which rapidly
conquered a portion of the old Roman world。 An analogous faith
endowed the Republican soldiers with a heroism and intrepidity
which never failed them； and which no reverse could shake
When the Convention gave place to the Directory they had
liberated the country； and had carried a war of invasion into the
enemy's territory。 At this period the soldiers were the only
true Republicans left in France。
Faith is contagious； and the Revolution was regarded as a new
era； so that several of the nations invaded； oppressed by the
absolutism of their monarchs； welcomed the invaders as
liberators。 The inhabitants of Savoy ran out to meet the troops。
At Mayence the crowd welcomed them with enthusiasm planted trees
of liberty； and formed a Convention in imitation of that of
Paris。
So long as the armies of the Revolution had to deal with peoples
bent under the yoke of absolute monarchy； and having no personal
ideal to defend； their success was relatively easy。 But when
they entered into conflict with peoples who had an ideal as
strong as their own victory became far more difficult。
The new ideal of liberty and equality was capable of seducing
peoples who had no precise convictions； and were suffering from
the despotism of their masters； but it was naturally powerless
against those who possessed a potent ideal of their own which had
been long established in their minds。 For this reason Bretons
and Vendeeans； whose religious and monarchical sentiments were
extremely powerful； successfully struggled for years against the
armies of the Republic。
In March； 1793； the insurrections of the Vendee and Brittany
had spread to ten departments。 The Vendeeans in Poitou
and the Chouans in Brittany put 80；000 men in the field。
The conflicts between contrary idealsthat is； between beliefs
in which reason can play no partare always pitiless； and the
struggle with the Vendee immediately assumed the ferocious
savagery always observable in religious wars。 It lasted until
the end of 1795； when Hoche finally ‘‘pacified'' the country。
This pacification was the simple result of the practical
extermination of its defenders。
‘‘After two years of civil war；'' writes Molinari； ‘‘the
Vendee was no more than a hideous heap of ruins。 About
900；000 individualsmen； women； children； and aged peoplehad
perished； and the small number of those who had escaped massacre
could scarcely find food or shelter。 The fields were devastated；
the hedges and walls destroyed； and the houses burned。''
Besides their faith； which so often rendered them invincible； the
soldiers of the Revolution had usually the advantage of being led
by remarkable generals； full of ardour and formed on the battle…
field。
The majority of the former leaders of the army； being nobles； had
emigrated so that a new body of officers had to be organised。
The result was that those gifted with innate military aptitudes
had a chance of showing them； and passed through all the grades
of rank in a few months。 Hoche； for instance； a corporal in
1789； was a general of division and commander of an army at the
age of twenty…five。 The extreme youth of these leaders resulted
in a spirit of aggression to which the armies opposed to them
were not accustomed。 Selected only according to merit；
and hampered by no traditions； no routine； they quickly succeeded
in working out a tactics suited to the new necessities。
Of soldiers without experience opposed to seasoned professional
troops； drilled and trained according to the methods in use
everywhere since the Seven Years' War； one could not expect
complicated manoeuvres。
Attacks were delivered simply by great masses of troops。 Thanks
to the numbers of the men at the disposal of their generals； the
considerable gaps provoked by this efficacious but barbarous
procedure could be rapidly filled。
Deep masses of men attacked the enemy with the bayonet； and
quickly routed men accustomed to methods which were more careful
of the lives of soldiers。 The slow rate of fire in those days
rendered the French tactics relatively easy of employment。 It
triumphed； but at the cost of enormous losses。 It has been
calculated that between 1792 and 1800 the French army left more
than a third of its effective force on the battle…field （700；000
men out of 2；000；000）。
Examining events from a psychological point of view； we shall
continue to elicit the consequences from the facts on which they
are consequent。
A study of the revolutionary crowds in Paris and in the armies
presents very different but readily interpreted pictures。
We have proved that crowds； unable to reason； obey simply their
impulses； which are always changing； but w