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methods have revolutionised them； by demonstrating that
phenomena； instead of being conditioned by the caprices of the
gods； are ruled by invariable laws。
Such revolutions are fittingly spoken of as evolution； on account
of their slowness。 But there are others which； although of the
same order； deserve the name of revolution by reason of their
rapidity： we may instance the theories of Darwin；
overthrowing the whole science of biology in a few years； the
discoveries of Pasteur； which revolutionised medicine during the
lifetime of their author； and the theory of the dissociation of
matter； proving that the atom； formerly supposed to be eternal；
is not immune from the laws which condemn all the elements of the
universe to decline and perish。
These scientific revolutions in the domain of ideas are purely
intellectual。 Our sentiments and beliefs do not affect them。
Men submit to them without discussing them。 Their results being
controllable by experience； they escape all criticism。
3。 Political Revolutions。
Beneath and very remote from these scientific revolutions； which
generate the progress of civilisations； are the religious and
political revolutions； which have no kinship with them。 While
scientific revolutions derive solely from rational elements；
political and religious beliefs are sustained almost exclusively
by affective and mystic factors。 Reason plays only a feeble part
in their genesis。
I insisted at some length in my book Opinions and Beliefs on
the affective and mystic origin of beliefs； showing that a
political or religious belief constitutes an act of faith
elaborated in unconsciousness； over which； in spite of all
appearances； reason has no hold。 I also showed that belief often
reaches such a degree of intensity that nothing can be opposed to
it。 The man hypnotised by his faith becomes an Apostle； ready to
sacrifice his interests； his happiness； and even his life for the
triumph of his faith。 The absurdity of his belief matters
little； for him it is a burning reality。 Certitudes of mystic
origin possess the marvellous power of entire domination over
thought； and can only be affected by time。
By the very fact that it is regarded as an absolute truth a
belief necessarily becomes intolerant。 This explains the
violence； hatred； and persecution which were the habitual
accompaniments of the great political and religious revolutions；
notably of the Reformation and the French Revolution。
Certain periods of French history remain incomprehensible if we
forget the affective and mystic origin of beliefs； their
necessary intolerance； the impossibility of reconciling them when
they come into mutual contact； and； finally； the power conferred
by mystic beliefs upon the sentiments which place themselves at
their service。
The foregoing conceptions are too novel as yet to have modified
the mentality of the historians。 They will continue to attempt
to explain； by means of rational logic； a host of phenomena which
are foreign to it。
Events such as the Reformation； which overwhelmed France for a
period of fifty years； were in no wise determined by rational
influences。 Yet rational influences are always invoked in
explanation； even in the most recent works。 Thus； in the
General History of Messrs。 Lavisse and Rambaud； we read the
following explanation of the Reformation：
‘‘It was a spontaneous movement； born here and there amidst the
people； from the reading of the Gospels and the free individual
reflections which were suggested to simple persons by an
extremely pious conscience and a very bold reasoning power。''
Contrary to the assertion of these historians； we may say with
certainty； in the first place； that such movements are never
spontaneous； and secondly； that reason takes no part in their
elaboration。
The force of the political and religious beliefs which have moved
the world resides precisely in the fact that； being born of
affective and mystic elements； they are neither created nor
directed by reason。
Political or religious beliefs have a common origin and obey the
same laws。 They are formed not with the aid of reason； but more
often contrary to all reason。 Buddhism； Islamism； the
Reformation； Jacobinism； Socialism； &c。； seem very different
forms of thought。 Yet they have identical affective and mystic
bases； and obey a logic that has no affinity with rational logic。
Political revolutions may result from beliefs established in the
minds of men； but many other causes produce them。 The word
discontent sums them up。 As soon as discontent is generalised a
party is formed which often becomes strong enough to struggle
against the Government。
Discontent must generally have been accumulating for a long time
in order to produce its effects。 For this reason a revolution
does not always represent a phenomenon in process of termination
followed by another which is commencing but rather a continuous
phenomenon； having somewhat accelerated its evolution。 All the
modern revolutions； however； have been abrupt movements；
entailing the instantaneous overthrow of governments。 Such； for
example； were the Brazilian； Portuguese； Turkish； and Chinese
revolutions。
To the contrary of what might be supposed； the very conservative
peoples are addicted to the most violent revolutions。 Being
conservative； they are not able to evolve slowly； or to adapt
themselves to variations of environment； so that when the
discrepancy becomes too extreme they are bound to adapt
themselves suddenly。 This sudden evolution constitutes a
revolution。
Peoples able to adapt themselves progressively do not always
escape revolution。 It was only by means of a revolution that the
English； in 1688； were able to terminate the struggle which had
dragged on for a century between the monarchy； which sought to
make itself absolute； and the nation； which claimed the right to
govern itself through the medium of its representatives。
The great revolutions have usually commenced from the top； not
from the bottom； but once the people is unchained it is to the
people that revolution owes its might。
It is obvious that revolutions have never taken place； and will
never take place； save with the aid of an important fraction of
the army。 Royalty did not disappear in France on the day when
Louis XVI。 was guillotined； but at the precise moment when his
mutinous troops refused to defend him。
It is more particularly by mental contagion that armies become
disaffected； being indifferent enough at heart to the established
order of things。 As soon as the coalition of a few officers had
succeeded in overthrowing the Turkish Government the Greek
officers thought to imitate them and to change their government；
although there was no analogy between the two regimes。
A military movement may overthrow a governmentand in the
Spanish republics the Government is hardly ever destroyed by any
other meansbut if the revolution is to be productive of great
results it must always be based upon general discontent and
general hopes。
Unless it is universal and excessive； discontent alone is not
sufficient to bring about a revolution。 It is easy to lead a
handful of men to pillage； destroy； and massacre； but to raise a
whole people； or any great portion of that people； calls for the
continuous or repeated action of leaders。 These exaggerate the
discontent； they persuade the discontented that the government is
the sole cause of all the trouble； especially of the prevailing
dearth； and assure men that the new system proposed by them will
engender an age of felicity。 These ideas germinate； propagating
themselves by suggestion and contagion； and the moment arrives
when the revolution is ripe。
In this fashion the Christian Revolution and the French
Revolution were prepared。 That the latter was effected in a few
years； while the first required many； was due to the fact that
the French Revolution promptly had an armed force at its
disposal； while Christianity was long in winning material power。
In the beginning its only adepts were the lowly； the poor； and
the slaves； filled with enthusiasm by the prospect of seeing
their miserable life transformed into an eternity of delight。 By
a phenomenon of contagion from below； of which history affords us
more than one example； the doctrine finally invaded the upper
strata of the nation； but it was a long time before an
emperor considered the new faith sufficiently widespread to be
adopted as the official religion。
4。 The Results of Political Revolutions。
When a political party is triumphant it naturally seeks to
organise society in accordance with its interests。 The
organisation will differ accordingly as the revolution has been
effected by the soldiers； the Radicals； or the Conservatives； &c。
The new laws