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a safe…conduct from the leaders of these bands。 Industry
and commerce were annihilated。 In Lyons 13；000 workshops and
mills out of 15；000 had been forced to close。 Lille； Havre；
Bordeaux； Lyons； Marseilles； &c。； were like dead cities。 Poverty
and famine were general。
The moral disorganisation was no less terrible。 Luxury and the
craving for pleasure； costly dinners； jewels； and extravagant
households were the appanage of a new society composed entirely
of stock…jobbers； army contractors； and shady financiers enriched
by pillage。 They gave Paris that superficial aspect of luxury
and gaiety which has deluded so many historians of this period；
because the insolent prodigality displayed covered the general
misery。
The chronicles of the Directory as told in books help to show us
of what lies the web of history is woven。 The theatre has lately
got hold of this period； of which the fashions are still
imitated。 It has left the memory of a joyous period of re…birth
after the gloomy drama of the Terror。 In reality the drama of
the Directory was hardly an improvement on the Terror and was
quite as sanguinary。 Finally； it inspired such loathing that the
Directors； feeling that it could not last； sought themselves for
the dictator capable of replacing it and also of protecting them。
3。 The Advent of Bonaparte。
We have seen that at the end of the Directory the anarchy and
disorganisation were such that every one was desperately calling
for the man of energy capable of re…establishing order。 As early
as 1795 a number of deputies had thought for a moment of re…
establishing royalty。 Louis XVIII。； having been tactless
enough to declare that he would restore the ancien regime in
its entirety； return all property to its original owners； and
punish the men of the Revolution； was immediately thrown over。
The senseless expedition of Quiberon finally alienated the
supporters of the future sovereign。 The royalists gave a proof
during the whole of the Revolution of an incapacity and a
narrowness of mind which justified most of the measures taken
against them。
The monarchy being impossible； it was necessary to find a
general。 Only one existed whose name carried weightBonaparte。
The campaign in Italy had just made him famous。 Having crossed
the Alps； he had marched from victory to victory； penetrated to
Milan and Venice； and everywhere obtained important war
contributions。 He then made towards Vienna； and was only twenty…
five leagues from its gates when the Emperor of Austria decided
to sue for peace。
But great as was his renown； the young general did not consider
it sufficient。 To increase it he persuaded the Directory that
the power of England could be shaken by an invasion of Egypt； and
in May； 1798； he embarked at Toulon。
This need of increasing his prestige arose from a very sound
psychological conception which he clearly expounded at St。
Helena：
‘‘The most influential and enlightened generals had long been
pressing the general of Italy to take steps to place himself at
the head of the Republic。 He refused； he was not yet strong
enough to walk quite alone。 He had ideas upon the art of
governing and upon what was necessary to a great nation
which were so different from those of the men of the
Revolution and the assemblies that； not being able to act alone；
he feared to compromise his character。 He determined to set out
for Egypt； but resolved to reappear if circumstances should arise
to render his presence useful or necessary。''
Bonaparte did not stay long in Egypt。 Recalled by his friends；
he landed at Frejus； and the announcement of his return provoked
universal enthusiasm。 There were illuminations everywhere。
France collaborated in advance in the coup d'etat prepared
by two Directors and the principal ministers。 The plot was
organised in three weeks。 Its execution on the 18th of Brumaire
was accomplished with the greatest ease。
All parties experienced the greatest delight at being rid of the
sinister gangs who had so long oppressed and exploited the
country。 The French were doubtless about to enter upon a
despotic system of government； but it could not be so intolerable
as that which had been endured for so many years。
The history of the coup d'etat of Brumaire justifies all
that we have already said of the impossibility of forming exact
judgments of events which apparently are fully understood and
attested by no matter how many witnesses。
We know what ideas people had thirty years ago concerning the
coup of Brumaire。 It was regarded as a crime committed by the
ambition of a man who was supported by his army。 As a matter of
fact the army played no part whatever in the affair。 The little
body of men who expelled the few recalcitrant deputies were not
soldiers even； but the gendarmes of the Assembly itself。 The
true author of the coup d'etat was the Government itself； with
the complicity of all France。
4。 Causes of the Duration of the Revolution。
If we limit the Revolution to the time necessary for the conquest
of its fundamental principlesequality before the law； free
access to public functions； popular sovereignty； control of
expenditures； &c。we may say that it lasted only a few months。
Towards the middle of 1789 all this was accomplished； and during
the years that followed nothing was added to it； yet the
Revolution lasted much longer。
Confining the duration to the dates admitted by the official
historians； we see it persisting until the advent of Bonaparte； a
space of some ten years。
Why did this period of disorganisation and violence follow the
establishment of the new principles？ We need not seek the cause
in the foreign war； which might on several occasions have been
terminated； thanks to the divisions of the allies and the
constant victories of the French； neither must we look for it in
the sympathy of Frenchmen for the revolutionary Government。
Never was rule more cordially hated and despised than that of the
Assemblies。 By its revolts as well as by its repeated votes a
great part of the nation displayed the horror with which it
regarded the system。
This last point； the aversion of France for the revolutionary
regime； so long misunderstood； has been well displayed by
recent historians。 The author of the last book published on the
Revolution； M。 Madelin； has well summarised their opinion in the
following words：
‘‘As early as 1793 a party by no means numerous had seized upon
France； the Revolution； and the Republic。 Now； three…quarters of
France longed for the Revolution to be checked； or rather
delivered from its odious exploiters； but these held the unhappy
country by a thousand means。 。 。 。 As the Terror was essential
to them if they were to rule； they struck at whomsoever seemed at
any given moment to be opposed to the Terror； were they the best
servants of the Revolution。''
Up to the end of the Directory the government was exercised by
Jacobins； who merely desired to retain； along with the supreme
power； the riches they had accumulated by murder and pillage； and
were ready to surrender France to any one who would guarantee
them free possession of these。 That they negotiated the coup
d'etat of Brumaire with Napoleon was simply to the fact that
they had not been able to realise their wishes with regard to
Louis XVIII。
But how explain the fact that a Government so tyrannical and so
dishonoured was able to survive for so many years？
It was not merely because the revolutionary religion still
survived in men's minds； nor because it was forced on them by
means of persecution and bloodshed； but especially； as I have
already stated； on account of the great interest which a large
portion of the population had in maintaining it。
This point is fundamental。 If the Revolution had remained a
theoretical religion； it would probably have been of short
duration。 But the belief which had just been founded very
quickly emerged from the domain of pure theory。
The Revolution did not confine itself to despoiling the monarchy；
the nobility； and the clergy of their powers of government。 In
throwing into the hands of the bourgeoisie and the large
numbers of peasantry the wealth and the employments of the old
privileged classes it had at the same stroke turned them into
obstinate supporters of the revolutionary system。 All those who
had acquired the property of which the nobles and clergy had been
despoiled had obtained lands and chateaux at low prices； and
were terrified lest the restoration of the monarchy should force
them to make general restitution。
It was largely for these reasons that a Government which； at any
normal period； would never have been endured； was able to survive
until a master should re…establish order； while promising to
maintain not only the moral bu