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until a master should re…establish order； while promising to
maintain not only the moral but also the material conquests of
the Revolution。 Bonaparte realised these anxieties； and was
promptly and enthusiastically welcomed。 Material conquests which
were still contestable and theoretical principles which were
still fragile were by him incorporated in institutions and the
laws。 It is an error to say that the Revolution terminated with
his advent。 Far from destroying it； he ratified and consolidated
it。
CHAPTER II
THE RESTORATION OF ORDER。 THE CONSULAR REPUBLIC
1。 How the Work of the Revolution was Confirmed by the
Consulate。
The history of the Consulate is as rich as the preceding period
in psychological material。 In the first place it shows us that
the work of a powerful individual is superior to that of a
collectivity。 Bonaparte immediately replaced the bloody anarchy
in which the Republic had for ten years been writhing by a period
of order。 That which none of the four Assemblies of the
Revolution had been able to realise； despite the most violent
oppression； a single man accomplished in a very short space of
time。
His authority immediately put an end to all the Parisian
insurrections and the attempts at monarchical resistance； and re…
established the moral unity of France； so profoundly divided by
intense hatreds。 Bonaparte replaced an unorganised collective
despotism by a perfectly organised individual despotism。
Everyone gained thereby； for his tyranny was infinitely less
heavy than that which had been endured for ten long years。 We
must suppose； moreover； that it was unwelcome to very few； as it
was very soon accepted with immense enthusiasm。
We know better to…day than to repeat with the old historians that
Bonaparte overthrew the Republic。 On the contrary； he retained
of it all that could be retained； and never would have been
retained without him； by establishing all the practicable work of
the Revolutionthe abolition of privileges； equality before the
law； &c。in institutions and codes of law。 The Consular
Government continued； moreover； to call itself the Republic。
It is infinitely probable that without the Consulate a
monarchical restoration would have terminated the Directory； and
would have wiped out the greater part of the work of the
Revolution。 Let us suppose Bonaparte erased from history。 No
one； I think； will imagine that the Directory could have survived
the universal weariness of its rule。 It would certainly have
been overturned by the royalist conspiracies which were breaking
out daily； and Louis XVIII。 would probably have ascended the
throne。 Certainly he was to mount it sixteen years later； but
during this interval Bonaparte gave such force to the principles
of the Revolution； by establishing them in laws and customs； that
the restored sovereign dared not touch them； nor restore the
property of the returned emigres。
Matters would have been very different had Louis XVIII。
immediately followed the Directory。 He would have brought with
him all the absolutism of the ancien regime； and fresh
revolutions would have been necessary to abolish it。 We know
that a mere attempt to return to the past overthrew Charles X。
It would be a little ingenuous to complain of the tyranny
of Bonaparte。 Under the ancien regime Frenchmen had
supported every species of tyranny； and the Republic had created
a despotism even heavier than that of the monarchy。 Despotism
was then a normal condition； which aroused no protest save when
it was accompanied by disorder。
A constant law of the psychology of crowds shows them as creating
anarchy； and then seeking the master who will enable them to
emerge therefrom。 Bonaparte was this master。
2。 The Reorganisation of France by the Consulate。
Upon assuming power Bonaparte undertook a colossal task。 All was
in ruins； all was to be rebuilt。 On the morrow of the coup of
Brumaire he drafted； almost single…handed； the Constitution
destined to give him the absolute power which was to enable him
to reorganise the country and to prevail over the factions。 In a
month it was completed。
This Constitution； known as that of the year VIII。； survived；
with slight modifications； until the end of his reign。 The
executive power was the attribute of three Consuls； two of whom
possessed a consultative voice only。 The first Consul；
Bonaparte； was therefore sole master of France。 He appointed
ministers； councillors of state； ambassadors； magistrates； and
other officials； and decided upon peace or war。 The legislative
power was his also； since only he could initiate the laws； which
were subsequently submitted to three Assembliesthe Council of
State； the Tribunate； and the Legislative Corps。 A fourth
Assembly； the Senate； acted effectually as the guardian of
the Constitution。
Despotic as he was and became； Bonaparte always called the other
Consuls about him before proceeding with the most trivial
measure。 The Legislative Corps did not exercise much influence
during his reign； but he signed no decrees of any kind without
first discussing them with the Council of State。 This Council；
composed of the most enlightened and learned men of France；
prepared laws； which were then presented to the Legislative
Corps； which could criticise them very freely； since voting was
secret。 Presided over by Bonaparte； the Council of State was a
kind of sovereign tribunal； judging even the actions of
ministers。＇9＇
＇9＇ Napoleon naturally often overruled the Council of State； but
by no means always did so。 In one instance； reported in the
Memorial de Sainte…Helene； he was the only one of his own
opinion； and accepted that of the majority in the following
terms： ‘‘Gentlemen； matters are decided here by majority； and
being alone； I must give way； but I declare that in my conscience
I yield only to form。 You have reduced me to silence； but in no
way convinced me。''
Another day the Emperor； interrupted three times in the
expression of his opinion； addressed himself to the speaker who
had just interrupted him： ‘‘Sir； I have not yet finished； I beg
you to allow me to continue。 After all； it seems to me that
every one has a perfect right to express his opinion here。''
‘‘The Emperor； contrary to the accepted opinion； was so far from
absolute； and so easy with his Council of State； that he often
resumed a discussion； or even annulled a decision； because one of
the members of the Council had since； in private； given him fresh
reasons； or had urged that the Emperor's personal opinion had
influenced the majority。''
The new master had great confidence in this Council； as it was
composed more particularly of eminent jurists； each of whom dealt
with his own speciality。 He was too good a psychologist not to
entertain the greatest suspicion of large and incompetent
assemblies of popular origin； whose disastrous results had been
obvious to him during the whole of the Revolution。
Wishing to govern for the people； but never with its assistance；
Bonaparte accorded it no part in the government； reserving to it
only the right of voting； once for all； for or against the
adoption of the new Constitution。 He only in rare instances had
recourse to universal suffrage。 The members of the Legislative
Corps recruited themselves； and were not elected by the people。
In creating a Constitution intended solely to fortify his own
power； the First Consul had no illusion that it would serve to
restore the country。 Consequently； while he was drafting it he
also undertook the enormous task of the administrative； judicial；
and financial reorganisation of France。 The various powers were
centralised in Paris。 Each department was directed by a prefect；
assisted by a consul…general； the arrondissement by a sub…
prefect； assisted by a council； the commune by a mayor； assisted
by a municipal council。 All were appointed by the ministers； and
not by election； as under the Republic。
This system； which created the omnipotent State and a powerful
centralisation； was retained by all subsequent Governments and is
preserved to…day。 Centralisation being； in spite of its
drawbacks； the only means of avoiding local tyrannies in a
country profoundly divided within itself； has always been
maintained。
This organisation； based on a profound knowledge of the soul of
the French people； immediately restored that tranquillity and
order which had for so long been unknown。
To complete the mental pacification of the country； the political
exiles were recalled and the churches restored to the faithful。
Continuing to rebuild the social edifice； Bonaparte busied
himself also with the drafting of a code； the greater part of
which consisted of customs borrowed from the ancien regime。
It was； as has been sai