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himself also with the drafting of a code； the greater part of
which consisted of customs borrowed from the ancien regime。
It was； as has been said； a sort of transition or compromise
between the old law and the new。
Considering the enormous task accomplished by the First Consul in
so short a time； we realise that he had need； before all； of a
Constitution according him absolute power。 If all the measures
by which he restored France had been submitted to assemblies of
attorneys； he could never have extricated the country from the
disorder into which it had fallen。
The Constitution of the year VIII。 obviously transformed the
Republic into a monarchy at least as absolute as the ‘‘Divine
right'' monarchy of Louis XIV。 Being the only Constitution
adapted to the needs of the moment； it represented a
psychological necessity。
3。 Psychological Elements which determined the Success of the
Work of the Consulate。
All the external forces which act upon meneconomic； historical；
geographical； &c。may be finally translated into psychological
forces。 These psychological forces a ruler must understand in
order to govern。 The Revolutionary Assemblies were completely
ignorant of them； Bonaparte knew how to employ them。
The various Assemblies； the Convention notably； were composed of
conflicting parties。 Napoleon understood that to dominate them
he must not belong to any one of these parties。 Very well aware
that the value of a country is disseminated among the superior
intelligences of the various parties； he tried to utilise them
all。 His agents of governmentministers； priests； magistrates；
&c。were taken indifferently from among the Liberals； Royalists；
Jacobites； &c。； having regard only to their capacities。
While accepting the assistance of men of the ancien regime；
Bonaparte took care to make it understood that he intended to
maintain the fundamental principles of the Revolution。
Nevertheless many Royalists rallied round the new Government。
One of the most remarkable feats of the Consulate； from the
psychological point of view； was the restoration of religious
peace。 France was far more divided by religious disagreement
than by political differences。 The systematic destruction of a
portion of the Vendee had almost completely terminated the
struggle by force of arms； but without pacifying men's minds。 As
only one man； and he the head of Christianity； could assist in
this pacification； Bonaparte did not hesitate to treat with him。
His concordat was the work of a real psychologist； who knew that
moral forces do not use violence； and the great danger of
persecuting such。 While conciliating the clergy he contrived to
place them under his own domination。 The bishops were to
be appointed and remunerated by the State； so that he would still
be master。
The religious policy of Napoleon had a bearing which escapes our
modern Jacobins。 Blinded by their narrow fanaticism； they do not
understand that to detach the Church from the Government is to
create a state within the State； so that they are liable to find
themselves opposed by a formidable caste； directed by a master
outside France； and necessarily hostile to France。 To give one's
enemies a liberty they did not possess is extremely dangerous。
Never would Napoleon； nor any of the sovereigns who preceded him；
have consented to make the clergy independent of the State； as
they have become to…day。
The difficulties of Bonaparte the First Consul were far greater
than those he had to surmount after his coronation。 Only a
profound knowledge of men enabled him to triumph over them。 The
future master was far from being the master as yet。 Many
departments were still in insurrection。 Brigandage persisted；
and the Midi was ravaged by the struggles of partisans。
Bonaparte； as Consul； had to conciliate and handle Talleyrand；
Fouche； and a number of generals who thought themselves his
equal。 Even his brothers conspired against his power。 Napoleon；
as Emperor； had no hostile party to face； but as Consul he
had to combat all the parties and to hold the balance equal among
them。 This must indeed have been a difficult task； since during
the last century very few Governments have succeeded in
accomplishing it。
The success of such an undertaking demanded an extremely subtle
mixture of finesse； firmness； and diplomacy。 Not feeling
himself powerful enough as yet； Bonaparte the Consul made a rule；
according to his own expression； ‘‘of governing men as the
greater number wish to be governed。'' As Emperor he often
managed to govern them according to his own ideal。
We have travelled a long way since the time when historians； in
their singular blindness； and great poets； who possessed more
talent than psychology； would hold forth in indignant accents
against the coup d'etat of Brumaire。 What profound
illusions underlay the assertion that ‘‘France lay fair in
Messidor's great sun''！ And other illusions no less profound
underlay such verdicts as that of Victor Hugo concerning this
period。 We have seen that the ‘‘Crime of Brumaire'' had as an
enthusiastic accomplice； not only the Government itself but the
whole of France； which it delivered from anarchy。
One may wonder how intelligent men could so misjudge a period of
history which is nevertheless so clear。 It was doubtless because
they saw events through their own convictions； and we know what
transformations the truth may suffer for the man who is
imprisoned in the valleys of belief。 The most luminous facts are
obscured； and the history of events is the history of his dreams。
The psychologist who desires to understand the period which we
have so briefly sketched can only do so if； being attached to no
party； he stands clear of the passions which are the soul of
parties。 He will never dream of recriminating a past which was
dictated by such imperious necessities。 Certainly Napoleon has
cost France dear： his epic was terminated by two invasions； and
there was yet to be a third； whose consequences are felt
even to…day； when the prestige which he exerted even from the
tomb set upon the throne the inheritor of his name。
All these events are narrowly connected in their origin。 They
represent the price of that capital phenomenon in the evolution
of a people； a change of ideal。 Man can never make the attempt
to break suddenly with his ancestors without profoundly affecting
the course of his own history。
CHAPTER III
POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN TRADITIONS AND
REVOLUTIONARY PRINCIPLES DURING THE LAST CENTURY
1。 The Psychological Causes of the continued Revolutionary
Movements to which France has been subject。
In examining； in a subsequent chapter； the evolution of
revolutionary ideas during the last century； we shall see that
during more than fifty years they very slowly spread through the
various strata of society。
During the whole of this period the great majority of the people
and the bourgeoisie rejected them； and their diffusion was
effected only by a very limited number of apostles。 But their
influence； thanks principally to the faults of Governments； was
sufficient to provoke several revolutions。 We shall examine
these briefly when we have examined the psychological influences
which gave them birth。
The history of our political upheavals during the last century is
enough to prove； even if we did not yet realise the fact； that
men are governed by their mentalities far more than by the
institutions which their rulers endeavour to force upon them。
The successive revolutions which France has suffered have been
the consequences of struggles between two portions of the
nation whose mentalities are different。 One is religious and
monarchical and is dominated by long ancestral influences； the
other is subjected to the same influences； but gives them a
revolutionary form。
From the commencement of the Revolution the struggle between
contrary mentalities was plainly manifested。 We have seen that
in spite of the most frightful repression insurrections and
conspiracies lasted until the end of the Directory。 They proved
that the traditions of the past had left profound roots in the
popular soul。 At a certain moment sixty departments were in
revolt against the new Government； and were only repressed by
repeated massacres on a vast scale。
To establish some sort of compromise between the ancien
regime and the new ideals was the most difficult of the
problems which Bonaparte had to resolve。 He had to discover
institutions which would suit the two mentalities into which
France was divided。 He succeeded； as we have seen； by
conciliatory measures； and also by dressing very ancient things
in new names。
His reign was one of those rare periods of French history during
which the mental unity of France wa