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recognised as their head Louis…Napoleon； the Emperor's nephew；
and finally against the republicans。
By means of their secret societies； analogous to the clubs of the
Revolution； the latter provoked numerous riots at various
intervals between 1830 and 1840； but these were easily repressed。
The clericals and legitimists； on their side； did not cease their
intrigues。 The Duchess de Berry； the mother of Henry V。； tried
in vain to raise the Vendee。 As to the clergy； their demands
finally made them so intolerable that an insurrection broke out；
in the course of which the palace of the archbishop of Paris was
sacked。
The republicans as a party were not very dangerous； as the
Chamber sided with the king in the struggle against them。 The
minister Guizot； who advocated a strong central power； declared
that two things were indispensable to government‘‘reason and
cannon。'' The famous statesman was surely somewhat deluded as to
the necessity or efficacy of reason。
Despite this strong central power； which in reality was not
strong； the republicans； and above all the Socialists； continued
to agitate。 One of the most influential； Louis Blanc； claimed
that it was the duty of the Government to procure work for every
citizen。 The Catholic party； led by Lacordaire and Montalembert；
united with the Socialistsas to…day in Belgiumto oppose the
Government。
A campaign in favour of electoral reform ended in 1848 in a fresh
riot； which unexpectedly overthrew Louis…Philippe。
His fall was far less justifiable than that of Charles X。 There
was little with which he could be reproached。 Doubtless he was
suspicious of universal suffrage； but the French Revolution had
more than once been quite suspicious of it。 Louis…Philippe not
being； like the Directory； an absolute ruler； could not； as the
latter had done； annul unfavourable elections。
A provisional Government was installed in the Hotel de Ville；
to replace the fallen monarchy。 It proclaimed the Republic；
established universal suffrage； and decreed that the people
should proceed to the election of a National Assembly of nine
hundred members。
From the first days of its existence the new Government found
itself the victim of socialistic manoeuvres and riots。
The psychological phenomena observed during the first Revolution
were now to be witnessed again。 Clubs were formed； whose leaders
sent the people from time to time against the Assembly； for
reasons which were generally quite devoid of common sensefor
example； to force the Government to support an insurrection in
Poland； &c。
In the hope of satisfying the Socialists； every day more noisy
and exigent； the Assembly organised national workshops； in which
the workers were occupied in various forms of labour。 In these
100；000 men cost the State more than L40；000 weekly。 Their
claim to receive pay without working for it forced the Assembly
to close the workshops。
This measure was the origin of a formidable insurrection； 50；000
workers revolting。 The Assembly； terrified； confided all
the executive powers to General Cavaignac。 There was a four…days
battle with the insurgents； during which three generals and the
Archbishop of Paris were killed； 3；000 prisoners were deported by
the Assembly to Algeria； and revolutionary Socialism was
annihilated for a space of fifty years。
These events brought Government stock down from 116 to 50 francs。
Business was at a standstill。 The peasants； who thought
themselves threatened by the Socialists； and the bourgeois；
whose taxes the Assembly had increased by half； turned against
the Republic； and when Louis…Napoleon promised to re…establish
order he found himself welcomed with enthusiasm。 A candidate for
the position of President of the Republic； who according to the
new Constitution must be elected by the whole body of citizens；
he was chosen by 5；500；000 votes。
Very soon at odds with the Chamber； the prince decided on a coup
d'etat。 The Assembly was dissolved； 30；000 persons were
arrested； 10；000 deported； and a hundred deputies were exiled。
This coup d'etat； although summary； was very favourably
received； for when submitted to a plebiscite it received
7；500；000 votes out of 8；000；000。
On the 2nd of November； 1852； Napoleon had himself named Emperor
by an even greater majority： The horror which the generality of
Frenchmen felt for demagogues and Socialists had restored the
Empire。
In the first part of its existence it constituted an absolute
Government； and during the latter half a liberal Government。
After eighteen years of rule the Emperor was overthrown by the
revolution of the 4th of September； 1870； after the capitulation
of Sedan。
Since that time revolutionary movements have been rare； the only
one of importance was the revolution of March； 1871； which
resulted in the burning of many of the monuments of Paris and the
execution of about 20；000 insurgents。
After the war of 1870 the electors； who； amid so many disasters；
did not know which way to turn； sent a great number of Orleanist
and legitimist deputies to the Constituent Assembly。 Unable to
agree upon the establishment of a monarchy； they appointed M。
Thiers President of the Republic； later replacing him by Marshal
MacMahon。 In 1876 the new elections； like all those that have
followed； sent a majority of republicans to the Chamber。
The various assemblies which have succeeded to this have always
been divided into numerous parties； which have provoked
innumerable changes of ministry。
However； thanks to the equilibrium resulting from this division
of parties； we have for forty years enjoyed comparative quiet。
Four Presidents of the Republic have been overthrown without
revolution； and the riots that have occurred； such as those of
Champagne and the Midi； have not had serious consequences。
A great popular movement； in 1888； did nearly overthrow the
Republic for the benefit of General Boulanger； but it has
survived and triumphed over the attacks of all parties。
Various reasons contribute to the maintenance of the present
Republic。 In the first place； of the conflicting factions
none is strong enough to crush the rest。 In the second place；
the head of the State being purely decorative； and possessing no
power； it is impossible to attribute to him the evils from which
the country may suffer； and to feel sure that matters would be
different were he overthrown。 Finally； as the supreme power is
distributed among thousands of hands； responsibilities are so
disseminated that it would be difficult to know where to begin。
A tyrant can be overthrown； but what can be done against a host
of little anonymous tyrannies？
If we wished to sum up in a word the great transformations which
have been effected in France by a century of riots and
revolutions； we might say that individual tyranny； which was weak
and therefore easily overthrown； has been replaced by collective
tyrannies； which are very strong and difficult to destroy。 To a
people avid of equality and habituated to hold its Governments
responsible for every event individual tyranny seemed
insupportable； while a collective tyranny is readily endured；
although generally much more severe。
The extension of the tyranny of the State has therefore been the
final result of all our revolutions； and the common
characteristic of all systems of government which we have known
in France。 This form of tyranny may be regarded as a racial
ideal； since successive upheavals of France have only fortified
it。 Statism is the real political system of the Latin peoples；
and the only system that receives all suffrages。 The other forms
of governmentrepublic； monarchy； empirerepresent empty
labels； powerless shadows。
PART III
THE RECENT EVOLUTION OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER I
THE PROGRESS OF DEMOCRATIC BELIEFS SINCE THE REVOLUTION
1。 Gradual Propagation of Democratic Ideas after the Revolution。
Ideas which are firmly established； incrusted； as it were； in
men's minds； continue to act for several generations。 Those
which resulted from the French Revolution were； like others；
subject to this law。
Although the life of the Revolution as a Government was short；
the influence of its principles was； on the contrary； very long…
lived。 Becoming a form of religious belief； they profoundly
modified the orientation of the sentiments and ideas of several
generations。
Despite a few intervals； the French Revolution has continued up
to the present； and still survives。 The role of Napoleon
was not confined to overturning the world； changing the map of
Europe； and remaking the exploits of Alexander。 The new rights
of the people； created by the Revolution and established by its
institutions； have exercised a profound influence。 The military
work of the conqu